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JOHN FliSKE, 
Whose daughter, Ethel F. Fiske, edited "The Letters of John 
Fiske." 



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^^^^'-^^ ^/~^^'7\J 



A HISTORY OF 
THE UNITED STATES 



BY 



JOHN FISKE, LiTT. D., LL. D. 

PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY AT 
ST. LOUIS, AND MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF OVERSEERS OF 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF BRAZIL 
FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 
MEMBER OF THE MILITARY HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MASSACHUSETTS, THE AMERICAN 
ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, THE AMERICAN 
HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN FOLK-LORE SOCIETY, THE ESSEX- 
INSTITUTE, THE HISTORICAL SOCIETIES OF MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTI- 
CUT, VIRGINIA, SOUTH CAROLINA, MISSOURI, MINNESOTA, 
OREGON, CALIFORNIA, ONEIDA COUNTY, N. Y-, 
NANTUCKET, ETC. 



WITH TOPICAL ANALYSIS, SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
AND DIRECTIONS 



BY 

FRANK ALPINE HILL, Litt. D. 

FORMERLY HEAD MASTER OF THE ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL IN CAMBRIDGE 
AND LATER OF THE MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL IN BOSTON 




jx eiRiUfraiafPrc^ 



BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 

^bc iRilierjsJbc press, €ambtJtioe 



^ 



^\'\l 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

StP 18 1907 

T-Cooyn^ht Entry 

Ju£ S" /9i7 

CUSS^ XXc, No. 

COPY A. 






COPYRIGHT 1894, '895, 1S9S, 1899 AND I907 BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Ancient America i 

II. The Discovery of America 19 

COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA, 1493-1763. 

III. The Spaniards. 1493-1565 40 

IV. French Pioneers, i 504-1635 ... = .... 50 
V. The English in Virginia, i 584-1676 59 

VI. New England. 1602-1692 85 

VII. The Middle Zone. 1609-1702 ■ . . 124 

VIII. The Far South. 1660-1752 147 

IX. Overthrow of New France. 1689-1763 .... 155 

THE REVOLUTION, 1 763-1 789. 

X. Causes and Beginnings, i 763-1 776 181 

XI. The Winning of Independence. 1776-1783 . . 216 

XII. The Critical Period, i 783-1 789 246 

THE FEDERAL UNION, 1789-1905, 

XIII. The Period of Weakness, i 789-181 5 .... 261 

XIV. Westward Expansion. 181 5-1850 309 

XV, Slavery and Secession. 1850-1865 349 

XVL Recent Events, i 865-1 907 441 



IV CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX. 

A. Names of the States and Territories, with 

Mention of Books on the History of the Sev- 
eral States 492 

B. Books on Successive Epochs 501 

C. Novels, Poems, Songs, etc., Relating to American 

History 504 

D. Minimum Library of Reference 507 

E. The Calendar, and the Reckoning of Dates . . . 508 

Pronouncing Vocabulary 513 

Index 519 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

ANCIENT AMERICA. 

1. The People of the United States. The people 
of the United States are a transplanted people. Of the 
citizens who voted in 1892 for Cleveland or for Harrison, 
some were born in Europe, many were the children of 
European parents who had migrated to America, nearly 
all were descended from ancestors who three centuries 
ago were dwelling in the Old World. Now and then, 
indeed, one may come across an American citizen de- 
scended from red men, but such are very rare. We are 
European people transplanted to the soil of a New 
World. Our history until within the last nine or ten 
generations must be sought in the history of Europe, 
and chiefly in that of England. In England our lan- 
guage attained its highest perfection while the red man 
still roamed unmolested in the Adirondacks and the 
Alleghanies ; and from England our forefathers brought 
the institutions and laws out of which our state and 
national governments have since grown. 

Until within four centuries our European ancestors 
had never heard of America, and had never dreamed of 
such a thing as a continent between the western shores 



INTRODUCTORY, 



Ch. I. 



of Europe and the eastern shores of Asia. Accordingly, 
when Europeans began coming to America in 1492, they 
The red supposcd it was Asia, and as they found the 
men ; why country pcoplcd by red men, they called these 
called In- red men "Indians." Europeans at that time 
knew very little about the inhabitants of Asia 
or India, else they would not have made such a mis- 
take. The natives of America are not especially like 
Asiatics. They are a race by themselves. They have 
lived in America for many thousand years; just how 
long nobody knows. One thing is sure, however. Be- 
fore ever white men came here, the red men had for 
long ages been spread all over North and South America, 

from Hudson Bay to 
Cape Horn, and dif- 
ferences of race had 
grown up among 
them. All alike had 
skins of a cinnamon 
color, high cheek 
bones, and intensely 
black eyes and hair, 
with little or no beard. 
But in respect of size, 
as of general appear- 
ance and manners, 
there were differ- 
ences between differ- 
ent tribes as marked 
TYPICAL INDIAN FACE. 1 ^s thc differcncc be- 

tween an Englishman and an Arab. 




1 Portrait of American Horse, master of ceremonies in the Sun Dance 
held by the Ogallala Sioux Indians in 1882. Selected by F. W. Putnam, 
of the Peabody Museum of Ethnology, Harvard University, as the most 
characteristic Indian face which he could find. 



§2. 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



2. The Savage Indians. Some of these Indians were 
much more savage than others. There were three 
principal divisions among them : (i) savage, (2) bar- 
barous, and (3) half-civilized. In North America the 
savage Indians lived to the west of Hudson Bay, and 




SAVAGE INDIANS.! 



southwardly between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Pacific coast, as far as the northern parts of Mexico. 
The Athabaskans, the Bannocks, and the Apaches were, 
and are, specimens of savage Indians. They had little 
or no agriculture, but lived by catching fish or shooting 
birds or such game as antelopes and buffaloes. They 
were not settled in villages, but moved about from place 
to place with .very rude tent-like wigwams. They wove 
excellent baskets, but did not bake pottery. 

1 From Longfellow's Hiawatha, illustrated by Frederic Remington. 



4 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. 1. 



3. The Barbarous 

Indians. All of North 
America east of the 
Rocky Mountains wa? 
inhabited by the bar- 
barous Indians, who 
had found out how to 
scratch the soil with a 
stone hoe and raise 
certain vegetables, so 
as not to be v/holly 
dependent upon hunt- 
ing and fishing. Go- 
ing eastward out of 
the range of the buf- 
falo herds, one would 
see more and more agricultural life. The most impor- 




AREAS OF THE THREE GRADES OF INDIANS 
IN NORTH AMERICA. 




BARBAROUS INDIANS.^ 

I From Longfellow's IIia-u;atka, illustrated by F. Remington. 



§3- 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



tant plant was maize, or " Indian corn," ^ which was not 
known in the Old World until America was discovered. 




SENECA-IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE.* 

These Indians also raised pumpkins and squashes, beans 
and tomatoes, tobacco and sunflowers. They made 
pottery and ornamental pipes, and some tribes wove 
coarse cloth. Their tools and weapons were made of 
chipped or finely polished stones. They lived in villages 




I 96 FT. 

I GROUND-PLAN OF IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE. 

with houses fitted to last for some years. Usually these 
houses were large enough to hold from thirty to fifty fam- 
ilies in separate booths or stalls. The illustration here 
shows a frame house of the Senecas^ covered with elm 
bark. Smoke is seen at regular intervals issuing from 

^ See my Discovery of America, i. 27-29. 

- From Morgan's Houses and House-Life of the American Aborig-ifies. 
3 The Senecas were one of the Iroquois tribes, and lived within the 
present limits of the State of New York. See map facing p. 8. 



introductory; 



Ch. I. 



five holes in the roof. Under each hole is a stone fire- 
pit in the middle of the hard earthen floor, and around 
each fire-pit are four stalls, two on each side and opening 
on the long passageway that runs through the centre of 

the house with an 
outside door at 
each end. This 
house would have 
twenty-four com- 
partments, of 
which twenty 
would hold each 
a family, while at 
each end two 
stalls were gen- 
erally reserved 
for storing pro- 
visions. Other 
tribes had dif- 
ferent styles of 
houses ; for ex- 
ample, the Man- 
dans, on the upper Missouri, lived in round frame houses 
covered with clay which hardened under the sun's rays 
and became fire-proof. Each house had a fire-pit in the 
centre, and the compartments for families were triangu- 
lar, with the points toward the centre, like the cuts of a 
pie. 

4. The Clan and the Tribe. All the families that 
lived together in the same house were supposed to be 
The Indian descended from the same female ancestor. All 
clan. j-^g families thus related made a clan. Some- 

times there were too many to live in one house, and they 

1 From Catlin's North American Indians, i. 88. The picture is modern 
and shows a horse j see opposite page. 




MANDAN ROUND-HOUSES.1 



§§4,5- ANCIENT AMERICA. J 

occupied several houses grouped together in one neigh- 
borhood. The houses and food belonged to the clan, 
and there was no private property except weapons and 
trinkets. The clan had its own religious ceremonies, 
and was known by a name, usually of some animal, as 
Bear or Turtle ; such animals were held sacred, and 
carved images of them, called totems, served as a kind 
of emblem of the clan. 

A certain number of clans, — from three or four up to 
twenty or more, — speaking the same language, made up 
an Indian tribe. Society was completely demo- -pj^g jj^. 
cratic ; there were no distinctions of rank. ^'^'^ t"be. 
Every clan elected its own "sachem " or civil magistrate, 
and could depose him for misconduct. Every clan also 
elected a certain number of war-chiefs. The tribe was 
governed by a council of its clan-sachems ; some tribes 
elected a head war-chief and some did not. Every mat- 
ter of importance had to be decided in the tribal council. 

5. More about the Barbarous Indians. The religion 
of these Indians was the worship of their dead ancestors, 
curiously mingled with the worship of the Sun, the 
Winds, the Lightning, and other powers of nature, usu- 
ally personified as animals. For example, Light- i^^^^^ 
ning was regarded as a snake, and snakes were religion, 
held more or less sacred. Religious rites were a kind of 
incantation performed by men especially instructed in 
such things, and called " medicine-men." In most reli- 
gious ceremonies dancing played a great part. 

The Indians had dogs (of a poor sort) which helped 
them in the chase and served also as food ; but they had 
neither horses, asses, cows, goats, sheep, nor Lack of 
pigs, — no domesticated farm animals of any sort, domestic 

' r. •' animals. 

Without the help of such animals it is very 
difficult to rise out of barbarism into civilized life. The 



8 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. L 

Indian's supply of food was too scanty to support a dense 
population. The people lived in scattered tribes, without 
any government higher than the tribe ; and hence they 
were almost always at war. Fighting was the chief busi- 
Per etuai ^^^^ °^ ^^^^' ^^^ ^ young man was not consid- 
warfare. gj-cd fit to be married until he had shown his 
prowess by killing enemies and bringing away their scalps. 
Such a kind of life tended to make men cruel and re- 
vengeful, and the Indians were unsurpassed for cruelty. 
It was their cherished custom to put captives to death 
with lingering tortures. 

6. Barbarous Tribes of the United States. The 
barbarous village Indians east of the Mississippi River are 
the ones that have played the most conspicuous part in 
the history of the United States ; for they were the In- 
dians with whom our people first came into contact, and 
against whom we had first to fight while the red man's 
power was still formidable. These Indians were divided 
Indian ^^^° three stocks or races, with languages quite 
races east distinct. First, there were the Maskoki, spread 

of the Mis- ' ^ 

sissippi. over the country south of Tennessee and from 
the Mississippi River into Florida. The prin- 
cipal tribes of Maskoki were the Chickasaws, Choctaws, 
Creeks, and Seminoles. Secondly, there were the Iro- 
quois, consisting chiefly of the Hurons north 
r quoi . ^^ Lake Erie, the Fries south of that lake, the 
Five Nations of central New York, the Susquehannocks 
of Pennsylvania, the Tuscaroras of North Carolina, and 
the Cherokees in the valley of the Tennessee. Thirdly, 
all the other tribes between the Atlantic and the Missis- 
sippi, and from the Carolinas up to Labrador, were 
Algonquins. There were also scattered Algon- 
gonquins. ^^.^ tribcs as far west as the Rocky Mountains. 
The most famous Algonquin tribes were the Powhatans 




The Winnebagos were an 
Intruding tribe of Dakotas. 
The Natchez were quite dif- 
ferent from the Maskoki tribes. 



I§ 6, 7. 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



5f Virginia, the Lenape of Delaware, the Mohegans 

[including the Pequots) and Narragansetts of New Eng- 

and, the Shawnees of the Ohio valley, and the Pottawa- 

lomies, Ottawas, 

il^hippewas, and 

5acs-and-Foxes of 

:he country about 

:he upper Great 

Lakes. 

Of all these bar- 
barous tribes the 
least advanced out 
Df savagery was 
the Algonquin 
tribe of Chippe- 
ivas (sometimes 
:alled Ojibwas) ; 
:he most advanced 
ivere the Iroquois 
tribes in New 
York, known as 
the Five Nations. 
Among certain 
Indian tribes be- 
[ore the white 
men came, confed- 
eracies had begun 

to be formed, in order to insure peace within the confed- 
eration, and to present a united front against all confedera- 
enemies. The most famous of these confed- *^*^s- 
eracies was that of the Five Nations, and we shall meet 
with it more than once in this history. 

7. The Half-Civilized Indians. In order to complete 
^ From a painting by J ulian Scott. 




HALF-CIVILIZED INDIANS.' 



lO INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 

our sketch of aboriginal America, it is necessary to say a 
few words about the half-civihzed Indians, although they 
have not had much to do with the history of the United 
States. Some of them still live upon our soil, however, 
and they are very interesting people. The home of the 
half-civilized Indians is chiefly mountainous country, and 
extends from New Mexico southward as far as Chili. A 
great part of this country is so dry that constant and 
regular irrigation is needed in order to obtain crops. At 
some early time the natives learned how to bring down 
water from the mountains in sluices, and thus to irrigate 
their fields of Indian corn. They also learned how to 
build very strong fortresses of adobe, or sunburnt brick, 
and afterward of stones more or less neatly hewn. Such 
fortresses were sometimes four or five stories in height, 
and would accommodate 3,000 persons or more. Some- 
times two or more fortresses grew together into castel- 
„ ,, lated towns holding the whole of a populous 

Pueblos. , ir r 

tribe. The word Pueblo means sometimes such 
a single stronghold and sometimes such a castellated 
city ; and the semi-civilized Indians who live in them are 
called Pueblo Indians. It will be observed that their 
country borders upon that of the savage Indians. For 
many ages such tribes as the Apaches have been the ter- 
ror of the semi-civilized tribes, who have often built their 
pueblos in situations almost inaccessible for the sake of 
security. In former times they used here and thereto 
build them high up on cliffs like eagles' nests. But in 
spite of such precautions, they have suffered much at the 
hands of the savages. 

8. Interesting Pueblo Indians. The most interest- 
ing Pueblo Indians now living in America are the Moquis, 
of northeastern Arizona, and the Zuiiis, of New Mexico. 
In these territories there were once a great many pueb- 



§8. 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



II 



los, now deserted and in ruins. In Mexico they were 
still more numerous, and formed several confederacies, 
of which the most famous was the Aztec Confederacy, 
founded about 1430. This was a league between the 




RUINED TEMPLE AT UXMAL, YUCATAN. 1 

City of Mexico and two neighboring pueblos for the 
purpose of extorting tribute from other pueblos ; and 
this work went on until the white men came and sub- 

1 This beautiful temple is in Uxmal, one of the most interesting of the 
ruined cities of Yucatan. At the time when Spaniards first visited the 
country, U.xmal was one of the principal cities of the half-civilized Mayas, 
who still dwell in Yucatan. At that time it may have been two or three 
hundred years old. As late as 1673, according to Stephens, religious 
rites were still regularly performed in this temple by the Mayas. 



12 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. 






dued the whole country. The Indian city of Mexico was 
entirely destroyed, but it seems to have been a collection 
Ancient of great pucblo castles, built of stone, covered 
Mexico. with white gypsum, and curiously carved 
there were also tall pyramidal temples for sacrifices to 
the gods. All through Central America, and beyond the 
isthmus in South America, semi-civilized people much 
like those of Mexico lived in similar cities, many of which 
now present for us some of the most interesting ruins in 
the world. 

Among the Pueblo Indians, society was made up of 
clans and tribes, with the government in the council, 
very much the same as with the barbarous Indians. But 
the Pueblo tribes usually had a military chief who had 
come to be a kind of king. They had temples and orders" 
of priesthood. Their tools and weapons were mostly of 
stone, but they made some use of bronze. In building 
and the arts of decoration they had gone far beyond the 
barbarous Indians. In Mexico and Central America 
they had hieroglyphic ^ or picture writing on bark and on 
a kind of paper made from the century plant. They did 
not torture prisoners to death, but sacrificed them to the 
gods. 

9. Half-Civilized Indians at their Best. The nearest 
approach to civilization in Ancient America was achieved 
Ancient '^^ ^^^ Peruvian Andes, where the tribe of Incas 
P^™- subdued neighboring tribes, and became a gov- 

erning class, or nobility, with its own chieftain, called 
especially The Inca, as king over the whole. These 
Incas founded something like an empire, and connected 
its parts with good military roads, and did something 



1 Hieroglyphic writing : a kind of writing in which ideas are conveyed 
by means of pictures of objects, or by means of symbols or signs, to which 
it is understood that certain meanings shall always belong. 



I 



§§9,10. ANCIENT AMERICA. 1 3 

toward civilizing the barbarous people they conquered. 
There was a greater population in Peru than elsewhere. 
There were two small domestic animals, the llama, useful 
as a light beast of burden, and the alpaca, useful for his 
fleece. Besides the corn and other Indian vegetables, 
the Peruvians cultivated the potato, which was unknown 
to the rest of the world until their country was discovered 
by white men. They raised the best of cotton, and made 
very fine cotton and woolen cloths. In most of the arts 
they were superior to any other people in America, 
though they had no writing. The religion of the Incas 
was a refined sun-worship, without human sacrifices. 
They made mummies of their dead, somewhat like the 
ancient Egyptians. 

10. Ancient Indians East of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. No traces of the half-civilized Indians have been 
found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains. 
The soil, indeed, is in many places covered with relics of 
bygone generations of men who built their houses upon 
earthen mounds for defense, or who heaped up 
mounds for burial purposes. Such mounds are Mound- 
especially abundant between the Alleghany 
Mountains and the Mississippi River. More than 2,000 
mounds have been opened, and nearly 40,000 ancient 
relics have been gathered from them ; such as stone 
arrow-heads and spades, axes and hammers, mortars and 
pestles, tools for spinning and weaving, water jugs, 
kettles, sepulchral urns, tobacco pipes, and articles made 
of coarse cloth. It used to be supposed that the mounds 
were built by some mysterious race of civilized men who 
have vanished from the earth. It was afterward sup- 
posed that the " Mound - Builders " were half-civilized 
Indians, like those of Mexico, who once inhabited the 
Mississippi valley, but were driven southwestward by the 



14 INTRODUCTORY. . Ch. I. 

barbarous Indians. But since the thousands of rehcs 
have been more carefully examined, this notion of a race 
of Mound -Builders has been steadily losing favor. 
The people who built the mounds seem to have been not 
half-civilized but barbarous Indians, and they may have 
been the ancestors of those who were dwelling in the 
country when the white men came. 

We have next to see how and when the white men 
happened to come. 

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS. 

To the Teacher. When the subdivisions of a topic are not in the 
question form, they may be readily changed to that form by those 
who prefer it. It is a good plan to have copied at the blackboard 
in anticipation of each lesson the topics and subdivisions that belong 
to it. This reduces the memory burden for the pupil, while it em- 
phasizes the points he should think of. 

The teacher should frequently study a topic with his pupils. Let 
the text be read thoughtfully, the teacher directing the class to note 
the leading points. He should show why certain things are of 
greater moment than other things, and why it is the grasping of 
these main points rather than the reciting of the text that is the 
essence of right study. Then the teacher rnay frame questions to 
test the pupils' apprehension of these points. Such questions will 
be substantially in accordance with the divisions of the topic as 
presented in the book. These questions answered, the pupil may 
then, without further help, tell what he can about the subject studied. 
The guiding principle of these suggestions to the teacher is that 
his pressure upon the pupil should take the direction of stimulating 
his thought rather than of directly training his memory, not forget- 
ting, however, that whatever helps the former will incidentally aid 
the latter. 

I. The People of the United States. 

1. The ancestors of most of us. 

2. Our history, language, and institutions. 

3. What America at first was thought to be. 

4. Why the red men were called Indians. 

5. How long the Indians have lived in America. 



Ch. I. ANCIENT AMERICA. I5 

2. The Savage Indians. 

1. Where they lived. 

2. How they lived. 

3. The Barbarous Indians. 

1. Where they lived. 

2. Their agriculture and manufactures. 

3. Their villages and houses. 

4. The difference betw^een the Seneca long-house and the Man- 

dan round-house. 

4. The Clan and the Tribe. 

1. The families of the clan. 

2. The property of the clan. . 

3. The name of the clan. 

4. The rulers of the clan. 

5. The make-up of the tribe. 

6. The rulers of the tribe. 

5. More about the Barbarous Indians. 

1. What they worshiped. 

2. Their lack of domestic animals. 

3. What they thought of fighting. 

4. Their cruelty in war. 

6. Barbarous Tribes of the United States. 

1. The Maskoki. 

2. The Iroquois. 

3. The Algonquins. 

4. The tribe nearest savagery. 

5. The tribes most advanced. 

6. Confederacies. 

7. The Half-Civilized Indians. 

1. Their country. 

2. Their houses. 

3. The word pueblo. 

4. Pueblo Indians. 

5. Their dread of the Apaches. 

6. Their cliff-houses. 

8. Interesting Pueblo Indians. 

1. The Moquis and Zunis. 

2. The Aztec Confederacy. 

3. The Indian city of Mexico. 

4. The people of Central America. 



l6 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. L 

5. How the Pueblo Indians compare with the barbarous 
Indians 

(a) in government, {b) in the arts, {c) in writing, and 
{d) in treating prisoners. 
9. Half-Civilized Indians at their Best. 

1. The Peruvian tribe of Incas. 

2. Their achievements in the arts and sciences. 

ic Ancient Indians East of the Rocky Mountains. 

1. Relics of the Mound-Builders. 

2. The first supposition about them. 

3. The next supposition about them. 

4. The present drift of thought about them. 

suggestive questions and directions. 
The object of these questions and directions is to stimulate read- 
ing, thinking, and, in a modest way, investigating. Young minds 
cannot be expected to engage in difficult research. Still they should 
be trained, even while they are in the grammar schools, to look up 
simple matters for themselves. Every schoor should have a small 
working library for the study of American history. Investigation 
may begin in such a library. It may extend to the public library, 
and, in favored families, to the books at home. Some of the ques- 
tions here asked may be answered from the text, some from a large 
dictionary or an encyclopaedia, some by intelligent persons whom 
the pupils may consult, and some out of one's sound sense. Do 
not try to have any one answer them all. Assign single topics to 
different pupils to report on at a subsequent time. Reserve some 
for class development under the teacher's guidance. It is not 
necessary to settle all the questions that come up. The point to be 
gained is not so much the accumulation of facts as the production 
of an inquiring turn of mind. 

1. What is a native? What is a foreigner? What is a citizen? 

(See the Constitution of the United States, 14th amendment.) 
What is an alien ? Can one be a native and a foreigner at 
the same time ? A citizen and a foreigner ? An alien and a 
citizen ? 

2. Imagine an Indian passing from a savage to a civilized state. 

When does he cease to be savage ? To be barbarous ? To 
be half-civilized? 



Ch. I. ANCIENT AMERICA. 1 7 

3. Tell about any Indians that may be living in your State. Tell 

about any Indians you may have seen. 

4. What makes it more and more difficult for Indians to lead a 

savage life in the United States? Is there any game where 
you live ? Was it right for the Indian to kill game anywhere ? 
Would it be right for you to do so .'' What makes the differ- 
ence .'' 

5. What signs, of Indians might one expect to find where they 

have long ceased to live ? What signs of them would natu- 
rally disappear in time ? 

6. Visit a collection of Indian relics, if practicable, and report on 

what you see. 

7. Are the Indians that Cooper tells about in his Leather Stocking 

Tales ( The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, and others) 
true and real ones, or rather better ? Why do you think so .-' 

8. What genuine Indian customs are described in Longfellow's 

Hiawatha ? (Speak of pipe-making, picture-writing, canoe- 
building, etc.) 

9. Is it a picture of savage or of barbarous life that Longfellow 

gives us in "Blessing the Cornfields"? {Hiawatha, xiii.) 
Why? 

10. Compare a modern apartment house with a Seneca long-house. 

What resemblances and differences occur to you ? 

11. Suppose one is called upon, as an artist, to paint three Indian 

groups, — one under savage conditions, the second under 
barbarous conditions, and the third under half-civilized con- 
ditions ; mention some things from the text that he ought to 
put into each picture and some things that he ought to keep 
out. Are the pictures in the text true to the kinds of life 
they are meant to show ? 

12. Who owned this country before the white men took possession 

of it ? Was it right for them to take it by force ? Ought they 
to have bought it ? Did they take possession of it for them- 
selves as individuals ? If to-day we hold land that was un- 
justly taken from the Indians centuries ago, is our title to it 
good ? May not the Indians themselves have seized by force 
the land that the white men subsequently took from them ? 

13. Does the fact that one nation or race can use land to better ad- 

vantage than another make it right for the former to take 
such land by force ? 



1 8 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 



TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

In selecting topics for collateral reading, it has been thought 
wise to limit them to a list of books so small and inexpensive that 
the humblest school may easily obtain them ; and to make them so 
definite, both in subjects and in the places where they are to be 
looked for, that there can be no excuse for ignoring them. They 
are selected for their interest, their picturesqueness, and the light 
they shed on the text ; and it is believed that if pupils can be led 
to read them, many, perhaps the most of them, may become con- 
scious of a pleasure strong enough to lead them to more extensive 
reading in other parts of the same books, or in the books of a 
more generous list. 

The subjects of Ancient America and The Discovery of Amer- 
ica are treated fully in Fiske's The Discovery of America, two vol- 
umes, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. The following topics are 
particularly helpful to the teacher and to his maturer pupils : 

1. Signs of the ancient occupation of America {a) in the shell 

mounds on the seacoast, {b) in the stone implements of cer- 
tain gravel beds, and (<:) in an occasional skull, 4-1 1. 

2. The Eskimos and the Cave men, 16-18. 

3. Signs of savagery, 24, 25. 

4. Three stages of savage life, 26. 

5. Three stages of barbarism, 27-32. 

6. The Iroquois tribes, 44-47. 

7. The barbarism of the great body of aborigines as shown in their 

villages, w^eapons, horticulture, warfare, cruelty, morality, 
and religion, 48-52. 

8. The Iroquois long-houses, 64-70. 

9. The Mandan round-houses, 79-82. 

10. The ruined cities of Central America, 131 -139. 

11. The mysterious Mound-Builders, 140-146. 




CHAPTER II. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

11. The Voyages of the Northmen. The time when 
people from the civiHzed countries of the Old World first 
visited the shores of America is not positively known. 
Vague stories have been current of voyages to North 
America made long ago by Arabs or Irishmen, or others, 
across the Atlantic, or by Chinese junks by way of the 
Aleutian Islands a thousand years before Columbus. We 
cannot say positively that such things might not have 
happened, but there is no evidence to warrant us in 
believing that they ever did happen. 

The first really historical account of Europeans visit- 
ing America is found in three Icelandic manuscripts 
written from one to two centuries before the time of 
Columbus. These manuscripts give accounts of the 
founding of a colony in Greenland by a Norwegian 
named Eric the Red, in the year 986. The inhabitants 
of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, usually known as the 
Northmen, were at that time the most skillful TheNorth- 
and daring sailors in the world. In their long ™en. 
ships — like long boats propelled with oars and sails — they 
made their way to, such distant places as Constantinople, 
and even through arctic waters to the White Sea and to 
Baffin's Bay. In 874 they settled Iceland, and in 986 
they founded on the southwestern coast of Greenland, 
near Cape Farewell, a colony which lasted until the fif- 
teenth century, and has left behind it the interesting ruins 



20 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. U 



of several stone-built villages and churches. Seamen 
sailing to this colony from Iceland were driven out of 
their way, and caught glimpses of the coast of Labrador. 
In the year looo Leif, son of Eric the Red, sailed from 
Greenland with one ship and a crew of thirty-five men, to 
see what he could find on this coast. He stopped and 
landed at several points, the last of which he called Vin- 
land (Vine-land ) because he found quantities of 
wild grapes there. This place was probably 
somewhere on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, During 



Vinland. 




NORSE SHIPS.l 



the next twelve years several voyages were made to Vin- 
land, chiefly for timber, of which there was a scarcity in 
Greenland. One of the explorers, Thorfinn Karlsefni, 
went with three ships, one hundred and sixty men, and a 
number of cattle, intending to found a colony in Vinland. 
1 From a drawing by M. J. Burns. 



§§ II, 12. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 21 

But the Indians slew several of his people, and made so 
much trouble for him that after three years he gave up 
his enterprise and went away. Our Icelandic chronicles,^ 
which are clearly based on the reports of eye-witnesses, 
give vivid and accurate accounts of the Indians and their 
peculiar methods of trading and fighting, besides men- 
tioning many of the animals, plants, and fish charac- 
teristic of this coast. They do not mention any further 
attempts to found a colony, though occasional voyages 
seem to have been made to Vinland for timber. Al- 
though the Northmen probably made a few flying visits 
to the coast of Massachusetts, there is no reason for be- 
lieving that they ever made a settlement south of Davis 
Strait. It is indeed very common, almost anywhere 
upon the New England coast, for somebody to point to 
some queer old heap of stones or the remnant of some 
forgotten barn-cellar, and ask if it is not a " relic of the 
Northmen." But no such relic has yet been found.^ 

12. Trade between Europe and Asia. These Vin- 
land voyages attracted no notice in Europe, and were 
soon forgotten even in Iceland. People were too igno- 
rant to feel much interest in remote seas and lands, 
wherever they might be. But the next four hundred 
years saw a slow but steady change. People began to 
feel a great and growing interest in Asia. 

From the earliest times there had been more or less 

1 See No. 31 of the Old South Leaflets for extracts from the saga, or 
story, of Eric the Red, one of the Icelandic chronicles referred to in the 
text. The teacher should read Fiske's The Discovery of Ainerica, i. 
194-226. [F. A. H.] 

2 The most famous of the supposed relics of the Northmen were, (i) a 
curious stone tower at Newport, R. I., now known to be the ruin of a 
stone windmill built about 1675 ^y Benedict Arnold, governor of Rhode 
Island ; (2) an inscription in picture-writing upon Dighton Rock, near 
Taunton, Mass., now known to have been the work of Algonquin Indians. 



22 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II. 



trade between Europe and Asia by ship and caravan, by 
way of Egypt and the Red Sea, or across Syria to the 
Persian Gulf, or by way of the Black and Caspian seas. 
After the Crusades^ (a. d. 1096-1291) had brought the 
peoples of the north and west of Europe into somewhat 
closer knowledge of the Oriental world, this trade in- 
creased rapidly. During the thirteenth and fourteenth 




OLD ROUTES OF TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA. 



centuries the blue Mediterranean was covered with ships 
carrying European metals, wood, and pitch to Alexan- 
dria and other eastern seaports, and returning to the 

1 The Crusades were great military expeditions organized by the Chris- 
tians of Europe to defend the rights of pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other 
places hallowed by events in the Saviour's life, and ultimately to recover 
the Holy Land from the control of the Mahometans. These expedi- 
tions began with intense enthusiasm, engaged vast numbers of men, led 
to terrible hardships and loss of life, and usually ended in disaster. The 
soldiers were called crssaders because they wore the sign of the cross, 
[F. A. H.] 



§§ 12, 13. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 23 

Italian coasts with silks and cottons, pearls and spices. 
On such trade Genoa, Pisa, and Venice waxed rich and 
powerful. But as the barbarous Turks ex- old routes 
tended their sway over the Eastern Empire, off^by'dieT* 
until in 1453 they completed their conquest of Turks. 
it, these avenues of trade were gradually closed, and the 
Mediterranean became more and more an unsafe place 
for Christian vessels. 

At about the same time the western nations of Europe 
were becoming more united within themselves, stronger, 
richer, and more enterprising. There was less private 
war than formerly, respect for law had somewhat in 

reased, capital was somewhat safer, and there was a 
growing demand for comforts and luxuries. It was, 

herefore, just as the volume of trade with Asia was 
'apidly swelling that the routes into Asia were cut off by 

he piratical Turks. It became necessary to Ng^essit 
ind other routes than those hitherto traversed, of finding 

an ocean 

md naturally the first attempt was to see what route to 
ould be done by sailing down the west coast 
)f Africa. Work in this direction was begun in 141 8 
)y Prince Henry of Portugal, celebrated as Henry the 
Mavigator ; but it was slow work. Ocean navigation in 
hose days was clothed with all sorts of imaginary 
{errors, and, moreover, people were not wonted to equip- 
)ing and victualing ships for long voyages. One Portu- 
guese captain would venture a few hundred miles farther 
han his predecessor and then turn back. It was not 
mtil 1 47 1 that the equator was reached and crossed, and 
till there seemed to be no end to Africa! 
13. Two Famous Geographers. Very little was really 
nown in those days about the world outside of Europe. 
Two books on geography, both written many centuries 
efore, were considered great authorities on all disputed 



24 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II 



points. One of these books was written in Greek about 
Ancient A. D. 1 50, by Claudius Ptolemy, a native of 
tafidS'of Egypt; the other was written in Latin still 
geography, earlier, about a. d. 50, by Pomponius Mela, a 
native of Spain. A glance at the two maps here in- 
serted 1 will show how both these geographers believed in 
the existence of a great unvisited continent south of the 
equator ; only, Ptolemy believed this imaginary continent 
to be joined to Africa and to Asia, while Mela believed 
it to be separated by an ocean intervening. According 
to Ptolemy, it would be impossible to sail from Spain 
around Africa into the Indian Ocean. According to 
Mela, such a voyage could be made without even cross- 
ing the equator. Therefore, when, in 1471, Portuguese 
sailors crossed the equator without finding an end to the 
African coast, the prospect was discouraging. Ptolemy 




EQUATOR 

UNKNOWN LAND 



PTOLEMY'S IDEA OF THE WORLD, A. D. I50. 



might turn out to be right ; and at any rate a voyage to 
Asia in this direction was going to be a very long voyage. 
Some inquiring minds began to ask if there could possi- 
bly be any shorter route. Among these inquiring spirits 
^ Both are greatly simplified by the omission of details. 



I 



13. H- 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



25 



was Christopher Columbus,^ a native of Genoa, who came 
to Lisbon about 1470 and took part in some of the ex- 
ploring voyages on the African coast. The solution of 
the question was very startling. 




Op 



°« FOURTH P^'^'' 



MELA'S IDEA OF THE WORLD, A. D. 50. 

14. The Earth a Round Ball. Three centuries before 
the Christian era, Aristotle ^ had proved that the earth is 
a round ball, and nearly all learned ancient writers after 
him adopted this view. Ptolemy held that the circum- 
ference of the earth at the equator is about 21,600 miles. 
In the time of Columbus nearly all learned men were 
clergymen, and for the most part they believed as they 
were taught by Aristotle and Ptolemy ; but the general 
public, including many ignorant clergymen, believed that 
the earth was a flat plane surface. But whether the earth 

* In Italian the name is Cristoforo Colombo ; in Spanish it is Cristo- 
val Colon. 

* A famous Greek philosopher, the most learned man of his times, and 
one of the greatest thinkers that ever lived. His writings covered nearly 
die entire range of human knowledge. 



26 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. 11, 

was round or flat, the idea of sailing to the west in order 

Sailing ^^ S^^ ^° ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^U starthng when it 
west in -^^s proposed to put it into practice. It is one 
get to the thing to maintain a theory with your Hps or 

your pen, and it is quite another thing to risk 
your Hf e in proving that it is practically true. If the earth 
is really a globe, then it ought to be possible to sail west- 
ward across the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern shores 
of Asia. Soon after 147 1 this idea occurred to several 
persons, one of whom was Columbus ; and Columbus 
soon made up his mind to try the experiment. 

The whole point of the enterprise lay in the distance 
to be traversed. The desired goal was the remote parts 

of Asia, whence came silks and pearls and 
of coiu^m- spices, — what we know as China, and Japan, 
w wouTd ^^^ ^^^ 'Ea.st Indies. Was the shortest route' 
the voyage ^q ^^js goal wcstward or southward ? The Por- 

be ? 

tuguese were sailing southward in the hope of 
passing around Africa to Hindustan ; would it be shorter 
to sail westward in the hope of getting straight to Japan ? 
Columbus asked advice from the famous astronomer 
Toscanelli,! who assured him that it would be shorter. 
So little was really known about the length of Asia that 
Toscanelli imagined that continent to extend eastward 
very near to where we now know Lower California to 
be. As for Japan, people had heard of such an island 
kingdom about a thousand miles east of China. The 
name was usually pronounced Chipango, and was often 
written Cipango. Toscanelli thought it must be about 
where we now know the Gulf of Mexico to be. He made 
a map to illustrate his view of the case, and sent it to 
Columbus, who prized it highly, and carried it with hira 

^ Toscanelli was born in Florence in 1397. The map in the text has 
been simplified so that its essential featured may be more easily grasped. 



)n his first voyage of discovery. He intended from the 
irst to make the Canary Islands his point of departure, 




§ M, 15- 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA, 



27 



TOSCANELLl'S MAP (1474) USED BY COLUMBUS ON HIS FIRST VOYAGE. 

^nd we can now see that if Japan had been where he 
upposed it was, his whole plan was right ; for the voy- 
Lge from the Canaries into the Gulf of Mexico is much 
ihorter than the voyage around the Cape of Good Hope 
o India. 

15. The Great Voyage of Columbus. Such was the 
prigin of Columbus's plan ; he thought that the shortest 
oute to Asia would be found by sailing westward across 
:he Atlantic Ocean. In those days the help of some 
government was necessary for such a costly enterprise, 
md it was a long time before Columbus was able to get 
such help. He tried Portugal first, and then Spain, and 
sent his brother to seek aid first from England and then 
:rom France. At length he succeeded in making an 
arrangement with the Spanish sovereigns, Fer- p-j^.^^ 
iinand and Isabella, and three small ships were fgeof Co- 

. lumbus 

fitted out for him and manned with ninety men. across the 
On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus sailed 
From the little port of Palos for the Canaries. After 
some delay there, he set sail on the 6th of September 



28 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. U 



with his prows turned westward into the unknown ocean. 
It was the most daring thing that had ever been done. 
Other brave mariners had sailed many a league along 
strange coasts, and won deserved renown ; but Colum- 




Copyrighted by L. Prang & Go. 



SHIPS OF COLUMBUS, 



bus was the first to bid good-by to the land and steer 
straight into the trackless ocean in reliance upon a scien- 
tific theory. This fact is of itself enough to make him 
one of the most sublime figures in history. 

After a voyage of thirty-five days land was discovered 
at two o'clock in the morning of October 12/ 1492. It 
was one of the Bahama Islands, but which one is not 
known. Before returning to Spain Columbus sailed along 
the shores of Cuba and Hayti, landing here and there 
and sending parties inland to examine the country. He 
was astonished at not finding splendid cities such as he 
had expected to find in Asia. But he had no doubt that 
he had reached Japan or some part of Asia. 

^ In old style, October 12 ; in new style, October 21. See Appendix H. 



§i6. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



29 



16. The Second and Third Voyages of Columbus. 

His return home with this news aroused great excite- 
ment in Spain and Portugal, and among intelligent 
mariners in England and elsewhere. On his jjjg second 
second voyage, in September, 1493, it was diffi- voyage, 
cult to restrain people from embarking with him. Every- 
body expected to get rich in a moment. A colony was 
founded upon the island of Hayti, but no silks or spices 
or precious stones were found, nor any gold as yet. On 




COLUMBUS.l 

the other hand, hard labor had to be endured, as well as 
hunger and sickness, and the disappointed colonists laid 
all the blame upon the " foreign upstart," Columbus. 
As his enterprise, moreover, did not bring money into 
^ After a painting in the Ministry of Marine at Madrid. 



30 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

the treasury, but entailed new expenses, he soon lost 
favor at court, and his troubles were many. He cruised 
His third among the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and on 
voyage. ^{3 third voyage, in 1498, saw land which we 
now know to have been the coast of South America from 
the mouth of the Orinoco westward for a short distance. 
He never doubted that all this was Asia, but wondered 
why he did not find Asia's riches. 

17. Other Memorable Voyages. Meanwhile other 
navigators had been crossing the Atlantic. John Cabot, 
Voyages of ^ native of Genoa, in the service of Henry VH., 
theCabots. j^i^g of England, sailed from Bristol in May, 
1497, in one ship with eighteen men. On the 24th of 
June he came upon the coast of North America at some 
point difficult to determine. Some think it was at Cape 
Breton Island, others would have it on the coast of Lab- 
rador. John Cabot's son, Sebastian, may have been with 
him on this voyage. In April, 1498, the father and son 
set out with five or six ships upon a second voyage, and 
explored some part of the North American coast. In 
September, one of these ships put into an Irish port, 
much the worse for wear ; when the others returned we 
do not know ; Sebastian Cdibot lived for sixty years after 
this, but we hear no more of his father. 

Recent researches have made it nearly certain that an 

expedition sailed from Cadiz May 10, 1497, and returned 

, to that port October 1 5, 1498, under command of 

V OVSffCS of -/ -^ 

Pinzonand Vinccnt Pinzon, who had commanded one of the 
espucius. gj^jpg j^ Columbus's first voyage. A Florentine 
merchant, skilled in astronomy and navigation, named 
Amerigo Vespucci, but better known by his Latinized 
name as Americus Vespucius, accompanied Pinzon, and 
has left, in a letter to one of his friends, an account of such 
parts of the voyage as he thought would interest the friend 



§17. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 31 

They first saw land near Cape Honduras late in June ; 
they skirted part of the Gulf of Mexico, passed between 
Cuba and Florida, and came up the Atlantic coast as far, 
perhaps, as Chesapeake Bay, whence they returned to 
Spain after touching at one of the Bermuda Islands and 
capturing a cargo of slaves there. 

There is much obscurity about these voyages of Pinzon 
and the Cabots, because they were not followed up until 
people had time to forget about them. No rich cities, no 
pearls or gold were discovered on these strange coasts ; 
this " Asia" was very different from what had been ex- 
pected ! Just at this time news was brought to Lisbon 
that turned all men's eyes to the south. Vasco voyage of 
da Gama started from that port in 1497, sailed ^=^^- 
around the Cape of Good Hope to the coast of Hindu- 
stan, and returned in the summer of 1499, with his ships 
loaded with pepper and spices, rubies and emeralds, silks 
and satins, ivory and bronzes. There was no doubt as to 
where he had been. Portugal had reached the goal after 
all, and not Spain ! Navigators stopped hunting in the 
Atlantic Ocean for Japan and the seaports of China. 
Columbus was now more than ever discredited, and tried 
to redeem his reputation by finding a strait leading into 
the Indian Ocean from the Caribbean Sea, for he im- 
agined Malacca as somewhere near the place where we 
know Panama to be. On his fourth and last pouj-th 
voyage (i 502-1 504), he explored the coasts of ^°Q^^^,,°g 
Honduras and Veragua in the hope of finding 
such a strait. Of course he found none, and after terri- 
ble hardships returned to Spain, to die, poor and broken- 
hearted, at Valladolid, May 20, 1506. In spite of his 
failure to find the riches of Asia, he died in the belief 
that he had found the shortest route thither. If he could 
have been told that he had only discovered a continent 



32 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

hitherto unknown, it would doubtless have added fresh 
bitterness to death. 

18. The Second and Third Voyages of Vespucius. 

There was nobody who could have given such information 
to Columbus in 1 506, but many navigators were carrying 
Second ^^ ^^^ work of discovcry. The most famous of 
voyage of thcsc was Amcricus Vespucius. In 1400, he 

Vespucius, ^ ^^y 

went as one of the pilots on a voyage upon the 
northern coast of South America. The coast Indians 
not uncommonly built their wooden villages on piles over 
the water, with bridges from house to house. Such a 
village in the Gulf of Maracaibo reminded the Spanish 
sailors of Venice, and they called it Venezuela (" little 
Venice "), a name which has since been extended to 
cover a vast country. The next year Pinzon struck the 
Brazilian coast near Pernambuco, and sailing northward 
discovered the Amazon. At that time Americus passed 
into the service of Portugal, and it is worth our while to 
notice the way in which this came about. 

The discovery of land in the western ocean in 1493 
made it necessary to adopt some rule by which Spain 
and Portugal might be prevented from quarreling over 
such coasts as their mariners might discover. The rule 
finally adopted in 1494 was sanctioned by Pope Alexander 
VI. A meridian was selected 370 leagues west of the 
^, , . , Cape Verde Islands, and was called " the Line 

The Line of ^ • ,, a i 

Demarca- of Demarcation. All heathen coasts that 
had been discovered, or that might be discov- 
ered, to the east of that line were to be at the disposal of 
Portugal ; all to the west of it were to belong to Spain. 
Well, we have seen how Gama came back from Hindu- 
voyageof stau in 1 499, loaded with treasures. Within a 
Cabrai. fg^ months, a fleet of thirteen Portuguese ships, 
commanded by Cabrai, started for Hindustan. Instead 



i8. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



33 



of hugging the African coast, Cabral kept out to sea 
perhaps further than he reaUzed, and on April 22, 15CXD, 
he came upon land to starboard. It was the Brazilian 
coast near Porto Seguro, and Cabral was right in believ- 




AMERICUS VESPUCIUS.l 

ng that it lay east of the Line of Demarcation. That 
vas the way in which Brazil came to be a Portuguese 
:ountry, while all the rest of the New World fell to the 
hare of Spain as far as she was able to occupy it. 

Cabral sent one of his ships back to Lisbon with the 
lews. The king contrived to secure the services of 
/"espucius as a pilot already familiar with the western 
(raters. Three ships sailed in May, 1501, with Americus 

1 From a very old print reproduced in Allgemeine geographische Ephe- 
neriden, Weimar, 1807, vol. xxiii. 



34 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

for chief pilot. They found the Brazilian coast at 
Third vo - Cape San Roque, and explored it very thor- 
age of Ves- oughly as far as the mouth of the river La 

pUCiuS. -TK-i rr^i r 

Plata. They were now too tar west to find 
anything for Portugal, so Vespucius headed southeasterly j 
and kept on without finding land until he reached the ■ 
island of South Georgia, about 1,200 miles east of Cape 1 
Horn. There the Antarctic cold and floating ice drove 
them back, and they returned to Lisbon. No mariners 
had ever been nearly so far south before. 

19. The Origin of the Name America. This voyage 
made a great sensation in Europe. It proved the exist- 
ence of an inhabited continent, hitherto unvisited by 
civilized man, in the southern hemisphere. What could 
it be.'' If you look back at the Mela map on page 25, 
you will see how it was regarded. Mela believed there 
was a great southern continent, which he called " Oppo- 
site World." Geographers often called it the "Fourth 
Part ; " Europe, Asia, Africa were three parts of the 
earth, and Mela's southern continent was the fourth. 
Nobody had ever visited this Fourth Part, and many 
people doubted its existence. Now Americus was sup- 
posed to have proved its existence. It was thought that 
Columbus and Cabot had reached Asia, and that Ameri- 
cus had coasted along a great continent south of Asia. 
The coast of Brazil was naturally supposed to be the 
coast of the Fourth Part. In 1 507, a German professor, 
named Martin Waldseemiiller, in a little treatise on 
geography, observed that he did not see why the Fourth 
Part should not be called America after its discoverer, 
Americus. At that time Columbus was not supposed tc 
have discovered a new part of the world, but only a new 
route to Asia. Waldseemiiller did not intend any injus- 
tice to Columbus. In consequence of his suggestion, the 



6s 19, 20. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 35 

ame "America" came to be applied to the coast of 

f'Brazil south of the equator. After some years it was 

put upon maps. At first it was equivalent to Brazil ; 

but it came to be equivalent to South America, and was 

finally applied to the northern continent also. 

20. The Work of Discovery Completed. Vespucius 
made three more voyages. He returned to the ser- 
vice of Spain, was advanced to the highest position in 
;he Spanish ma- 
rine, and died 
: n February, 
1 5 1 2. Five 

y cars after his 
ieath a Euro- 
; )can ship for 
he first time 
;ailed through 
he Indian 

)cean and on 
■ o the east- 
ern shores of 
"hina. It was 
Portuguese 
hip. Thus, in 
; 51 7, it was 
1, iroved to be a 
,i[ png way from China to the coasts visited by Columbus 
o'lnd Vespucius. In 15 13, Balboa had looked 
rtl iown from a lofty peak in Darien upon what Pacific * 
•ei f e now know as the Pacific Ocean. In 15 19, ^"oveTed 
[ti Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese captain in ^^'^ , 

I 1 r r- <-. • 1 crossed. 

leipmmand of five Spanish ships, sailed from 

;i,s|!»pain to find a passage through the Vespucius continent, 

J 

tllj ^ From Navarrete's Coleccion dc Vtages, torn. iv. 




%■ !%■•>■<'>* 



MAGELLAN. 1 



36 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II. 



and a westward route to the Indian Ocean. He passed 
through the strait that bears his name, and in- spite of 
mutiny, scurvy, and starvation, crossed the vast Pacific, 
in the most astonishing voyage that ever was made. He 
was killed by savages in the Philippine Islands, but one 
of his ships arrived in Spain in 1522, after completing 
the first circumnavigation of the earth. 

In spite of this voyage of Magellan the idea of a con- 
siow com- nection between America and Asia was slow in 
thfwork^of disappearing. Within forty years from the 
discovery, death of Columbus the shape of South America 
was quite well known, but the knowledge of North 
America advanced much more slowly. Many who be- 
lieved it to be distinct from Asia regarded it as merely 
a thin barrier of land through which a strait into the 




ROUTES OF THE FOUR GREATEST VOYAGES. 

Pacific Ocean might be found. It took long inland 
journeys to reveal the enormous width of the northern 
continent ; and it took voyages in the northern Pacific to 
show its true relations to Asia. It was not until 1728 



CH. IL THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 37 

that Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia, discovered the strait that bears his name. 

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS. 

11. The Voyages of the Northmen. 

1. The first historical accounts of voyages to America. 

2. Who were the Northmen ? 

3. Their settlement of Iceland and Greenland. 

4. Give an account of the voyage of Leif. 

5. Where was Vinland, and why was it so named ? 

6. Tell about Karlsefni's colony and its fate. 

7. Why are the Icelandic chronicles thought to be true? 

8. Was New England really settled by the Northmen? 

12. Trade Between Europe and Asia. 

1. Why did the Vinland voyages interest Europe so little? 

2. What trade had Europe carried on from ancient times ? 

3. What effect had the Crusades on this trade ? 

4. Why did it become important to find a new route to Asia ? 

5. How did the Portuguese try to get there? 

13. Two Famous Geographers. 

1. Ptolemy and his idea of the world. 

2. Mela and .his idea of the world. 

3. Ptolemy's belief about sailing from Spain around Africa. 

4. Mela's behef about sailing from Spain around Africa. 

5. How did the question of a shorter route arise ? 
The Earth a Round Ball. 

1. What Aristotle and Ptolemy thought about the earth's 
shape. 

2. What learned people thought about it in Columbus's time. 

3. What ignorant people thought about it. 

4. How did the scheme of reaching the east, by sailing west 
strike peojjle ? 

5. How did Toscanelli locate Asia and Japan ? 
The Great Voyage of Columbus. 

1. Royal help at last. 

2. The fleet and the crew. 

3. The departure. 

4. Wherein Columbus surpassed others. 

5. The discovery of land. 

6. What perplexed Columbus. 



jg INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch, II. 



i6. The Second and Third Voyages of Columbus. 

1. The pressure to embark with Columbus. 

2. How Columbus lost favor with the colonists. 

3. What he discovered on his third voyage. 

4. His continued belief and wonder. 

17. Other Memorable Voyages. 

1 . Those of the Cabots. 

a. In whose service? 

b. The coasts explored. 

2. That of Pinzon. 

a. The coasts visited. 

b. His famous companion. 

3. That of Gama. 

a. The country visited. 

b. The route taken. 

c. The treasures brought back. 

d. The effect on men's thoughts. 

4. The last by Columbus. 

a. His faihng reputation. 

b. His aim in this voyage. 

c. His hardships and death. 

d. His dying behef. 

18. The Second and Third Voyages of Vespucius. 

1. The story of his first voyage reviewed (i 497-1 498). 

2. The coasts visited on his second voyage (i 499-1 500). 

3. The " Line of Demarcation." 

4. The purpose of Cabral's voyage in 1 500. 

5. How Brazil came to b'elong to Portugal. 

6. The purpose of Vespucius's third voyage. 

7. Show how this purpose shaped the voyage. 

19. The Origin of the Name America. 

1. Why Europe was excited over Vespucius's third voyage 

2. The " Opposite World " or " Fourth Part." 

3. What Vespucius was supposed to have discovered. 

4. The name given to this Fourth Part. 

5. The gradual extension of the name. 

20. The Work of Discovery Completed. 

1. The first proof that it is a long way west to China. 

2. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

3. The first voyage around the world. 



Ch. II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 39 

4. The growth of knowledge about South and North America. 

5, The final proof of their separation from Asia. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Mention some facts in geography not known in 1492. 

2. Make out a table of the discoveries described in the text:- 



LAND DISCOVERED. 


BV WHOM. 


WHEN. 


FOR WHOM. 











3. Trace each voyage on the map. 

4. How may a country already inhabited be said to be discovered ? 

5. Did Vespucius himself in any way wrong Columbus ? 

6. Are the days of discovery in geography gone by ? If not, tell 

in what directions discoveries are still looked for. 

7. What is the favorite modern scheme of a short route to Asia? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The Discovery of America: 

1. Voyages of the Northmen to Vinland, i. 164-172. 

2. The ships of the Vikings, i. 172-175. 

3. The Northmen and the Skraehngs, i. 185-192. 

4. Obstacles to navigation in the fifteenth century, i. 309-316. 

5. The first voyage of Columbus, i. 419-445. 

6. The last voyage of Columbus, i. 505-513. 

7. Vespucius and the " New World," ii. 96-108. 

For those teachers who would like to encourage something like 
original work on the part of their abler pupils, the following Old 
South Leaflets on the discovery of America furnish admirable ma- 
terial. They are prepared by Mr. Edwin D. Mead, and published 
by Directors of Old South Work, Old South Meeting House, Bos- 
ton, at five cents a copy, or three dollars per hundred. No. 29, The 
Discovery of America, from the Life of Columbus, by his son Ferdi- 
nand Columbus; No. 30, Strabo's Introduction to Geography; No, 

31, The Voyages to Vi?iland, from the Saga of Eric the Red; No. 

32, Marco Polo's Account of JaJ)an aud Java; No. 33, Columbus's 
Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First Voyage and Discov- 
ery; No. 34, Americus Vespucius" s Account of his First Voyage. 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 
1493-1763. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SPANIARDS. 1493-1565. 

21. The Spanish Conquest of the Half-Civilized In- 
iians. Like Saul, who went forth to seek his father's 
stray asses and found a kingdom, the great mariners of 
the fifteenth century achieved something very different 
from what they were dreaming of. They set out to find 
new routes for trade with China and India, and without 
Aims and knowing it they discovered a New World in 
theSp^an'ish which to plant European civilization. Com- 
discoverers. nicrcial and religious motives — the desire to 
make money and to save souls — governed the earliest 
adventurers upon American soil. The Spaniards, who 
were first in the field, sought diligently for the rich cities 
of eastern Asia of which they had heard. In 15 17-19, 
they made their way into Yucatan and Mexico, where 
they found the strange-looking fortified towns of the half- 
civilized Indians and mistook them for Asiatic cities. In 
the course of a few years the Spaniards discovered and 
conquered the whole region inhabited by semi-civilized 
Indians, from Mexico down to Chili, except at the two 
extreme ends. In southern Chili they encountered a, 
race of Indians who could not be conquered. These 
Indians, the Araucanians, are to-day quite civilized, and 
form a part of the republic of Chili, retaining their own 



)§ 21, =2. THE SPANIARDS, 4I 

self-government. As for the northern end of the semi- 
:ivilized region, we shall presently see what happened 
;here. 

In Mexico and Peru the Spaniards found great quanti- 
;ies of gold and silver. They settled in these countries 
n small numbers as conquerors ruling over a large native 
copulation. They converted the Indians to ^ 

■~., . . • , . 1 T r^ Spanish 

^hristianity and mtroduced Spanish laws and settlements 

;ustoms to some extent. The chief interest of "^enca. 

[he Spanish government in its American possessions was 

'heir gold and silver. Some of the richest mines were at 

^otosi, in the Bolivian Andes. To prevent other nations 

|rom approaching these mines from the Atlantic coast by 

vay of the river La Plata, the Spaniards founded colonies 

ipon that river and near its mouth, which afterward 

[developed into the states of Paraguay, Uruguay, and 

Buenos Ayres, They also made settlements upon the 

oast of Venezuela because it abounds in rich pearl-fish- 

ries. Except for these places, and the West India 

jlands where they made their first settlements, and 

xcept for Florida about to be mentioned, the Territory 

srritory occupied by the Spaniards in the New ^hrspi*"^ 

Vorld was exactly the territory occupied by '^'■'^^• 

he half-civilized Indians. The Spaniards simply took 

iOSsession of those Indian countries and turned over a 

irge part of their revenues to the government at Madrid. 

^he Spanish colonies were, therefore, very different from 

,ie English colonies, which introduced a purely European 

Dciety into the New World. 

22. The Spaniards on the North Atlantic Coast. 

n invading: the res:ion of the barbarous Indians in North 

t-merica, the Spaniards did not achieve great success. 

"he first of their ventures upon the soil of what is now 

le United States was made by Juan Ponce de Leon, a 



42 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. Ill 

brave knight who had come out with Columbus in his 
^jjg second voyage. There was a story of a won 

"Fountain dcrful fountain somewhere in eastern Asia, b\ 

of Youth." ■' 

drinking of which one might perpetually renQv, 
one's youth. From something said by the Indians in 
Cuba, the Spaniards got the idea that this fountain was 
situated a little to the north of that island, and Juan 
Ponce went in search of it. On Easter Sunday, 1513,^ 
he came within sight of a coast which he called " Land 
of Easter," or in Spanish, "Terra de Pascua Florida;" 
and it has ever since been known as Florida. In 1521, 
he tried to make a settlement on this coast, but was 
defeated and mortally wounded by the Indians. 

After the return of Magellan's expedition, in 1522,3 
good many people's eyes began to open to the fact that 
these strange shores were not a part of Asia, but a bar- 
rier in the way to Asia, and some mariners began trying 
to find some new channel through this barrier. 

The strait of Magellan was so far to the south that 
people desired some shorter route, and it was hoped 
The search ^^^^ somc Strait or channel might be found to 
{?L^ .^ the north of Florida. So little was vet known 

" North- -' 

west Pas- of what wc Call North America that many people 
^^^^' expected to find only groups of islands where 

we know that there is the coast of a very broad continent 
Thus began the famous search for a " Northwest Pas- 
sage " to Asia. The Northwest Passage was finally 
discovered in 1854, by Sir Robert McClure, who passed 
from Bering Strait through the islands of the Arctic 
Ocean to Davis Strait, and so out into the Atlantic. 
The search was begun 330 years earlier by Vasquez 
d'Ayllon, who came up from Hayti in 1524, and tried 
the James River and Chesapeake Bay in the hope of find 1 

^ This date is often given incorrectly as 1512. ' 



2,23. THE SPANIARDS. 43 

a passage there. Disappointed in this, he came two 
.rs later, with six hundred people, and began to build 
Dwn on the James River, very near where the Eng- 
L afterward founded Jamestown. Ay lion's town was 
ed San Miguel. He employed negro slaves in build- 
it ; and this seems to have been the first instance of 
jro slave labor within the territory since covered by 
United States. Starvation, disease, and Indian toma- 
vks soon destroyed Ayllon and his little colony. 
Awhile these things were going on, in 1525, Spanish 
ps, commanded by Estevan Gomez, followed our 
sts from Labrador to Florida, taking notice 
ZcLpe. Cod, Narragansett Bay, and the mouths 
the Connecticut, Hudson, and Delaware rivers. As 
found neither gold nor a northwest passage, his ex- 
iition was considered a failure. 

53. Spanish Adventures to the Westward. Voy- 
;rs upon the western Florida coast had ascended Mo- 
; Bay and found the Indians wearing gold ornaments. 
|vas accordingly thought that there might be another 
xico in that direction, and, in 1528, Panfilo de Narvaez 
-ted with four ships and four hundred men to explore 
se coasts. The expedition got scattered ; Narvaez and 
ly of his men were drowned at the mouth of the Mis- 
lippi River ; others got ashore and were captured by 
I Indians. Four of these captives — the treas- Adven- 
r, Cabeza de Vaca, with two Spanish sailors cabez°a^de 

one negro — had wonderful adventures. '^^<=^- 
2se Indians had never seen white men or black men, 
1 they regarded their captives as supernatural beings 
jreat wizards ; so they did not kill them, but carried 
m about in their wanderings. In the course of eight 
rs Vaca and his comrades traveled over 2,000 miles, 
ping westward until they reached the Gulf of Cali- 



44 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch 



fornia, where they found Spanish friends from Mex 
In the course of their wanderings they heard sto] 
about Zuni and other pueblos far to the northward. 
1539, the Spanish viceroy of Mexico sent a monk nan 




Coronado. 



Marcos de Nizza to inquire into the truth of th 
stories, and this monk reached a hill from which he co 
see the Zuiii pueblos. The next year Franci 
de Coronado started northward with 300 Sp 
lards and 800 Mexican Indians ; he discovered the Gn 
Canon of the Colorado River, visited the Moqui and Z 

1 Wolpi is one of the fortified pueblos of the Moquis of northeas 
Arizona. Situated on the summit of a steep hill, it is very difficult fo 
enemy to approach it. The illustration shows the way in which ci 
and sheep are penned. The gardens are down in the irrigated fi 
below, and all the water has to be carried up the hill in jars; th; 
regularly done by the women. The buildings are entered at the to]! 
ladders, and the interior of a room is represented in the illustKi 
on page 9. 



23. 24. 



THE SPANIARDS. 



45 



eblos, and went as far, perhaps, as some point on the 
uth fork of the Platte River, or possibly somewhat fur- 
er to the cast. He returned to Mexico in 1542, dis- 
sted at not having found gold or wealthy kingdoms. 
24. Further Attempts at Conquest and Colonization. 
hile Coronado was making these long marches, another 
)anish knight was engaged in the same kind of search 
the eastern part of the continent. Fernando pernando 
Soto, governor of Cuba, started in 1539, with '^^ s°^o- 
le ships, carrying 570 men and 223 horses. From 
orida he advanced very slowly northward and west- 
ird, encountering desperate opposition from the Creek 
dians. In the 
ring of 1542, 
2 party crossed 
2 Mississippi 
ver, and went 
the western 
nk as far per- 
ps as New Mad- 
1. They found 
sadful hard- 
ips, but no rich 
basures. Soto 
bd of fever and 
Is buried in the 
bat river ; the 
rnnant of his 

pn built boats Spanish gateway at st. augustine. 

1 which they 

|led down stream and out to sea, and after much suffer- 

j reached the Mexican coasts. 

In 1546-49, the Spaniards made an attempt to found a 

lony in Florida, but all the settlers were massacred by 




46 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. Ill 

I 

I 

the Indians. Further unsuccessful attempts were madd 
from time to time until 1565, when St. Augus] 
of St. tine, the oldest city in the United States, was' 

ugus ine. fQ^j^j^g^ -^y Menendez. On this occasion thfi 
Spaniards came into conflict with the French. For thv 
first time we find Spaniards meeting with Europear 
rivals in the New World, and we have next to see hoM 
this came about. 

topics and questions. 

21. The Spanish Conquest of the Half-Civilized Indians 

1. The aims and motives of the Spanish discoverers. 

2. The extent and limits of their conquests. 

3. The Spaniards' cliief interest in tlieir American possessions 

4. How they guarded the Potosi mines, and what came of it . 

5. How the Spanish colonies differed from the English (a) ii 

respect to the kind of Indians dealt with, and (d) ii 
respect to the general mode of handling them. 

22. The Spaniards on the North Atlantic Coast. 

1. The " Fountain of Youth." 

2. Ponce de Leon and his search for the fountain. 

3. How Florida came to be so named. 

4. New views about Florida and the regions to the north, 

5. Why mariners were led to search for the "Northwest Pas] 

sage." ' 

6. The beginning of the search. 

7. The site, building, and fate of San Miguel, 

8. The final discovery of the passage. 

23. Spanish Adventures to the Westward. 

1. The search for a new Mexico, and how it ended. 

2. How the Indians regarded Vaca and his fellow captives. 

3. The wanderings of Vaca. 

24. Further Attempts at Conquest and Colonization. 

1. The expedition of Fernando de Soto. 

2. Its disasters and ruin. 

3. The settlement of St. Augustine. 

4. The first European rivals of the Spaniards. 

suggestive questions and directions. 
I. Why do intelligent people nowadays refuse to believe in 



. III. THE SPANIARDS. 47 

fountain of youth ? Mention some other belief as fascinat- 
ing and absurd as this in a fountain of youth. Show how 
a strong belief, whether well grounded or not, may affect the 
course of history. 
With what half-civilized Indians did the Spaniard contend? 
With what barbarous Indians? Why did the Spaniards 
succeed with the former and fail with the latter? What is 
the difference between half-civilized people and barbarous 
people ? 
Trace a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific by way of 
the Arctic Ocean, telling through what bodies of water, 
straits, etc., the way lies. Is this passage of service to 
commerce ? Reasons for your answer. 
Was America discovered at once ? Is it all discovered now ? 
Is enough discovered to make a map of its entire general 
shape ? Does Greenland belong to America ? 
It is said on page 71 that negro slavery in the United States 
began at Jamestown in 161 9. Reconcile this statement with 
what is said about Ayllon's slaves, page 43, and Hawkins's 
slaves, pages 59, 60. 
What were probably some of the reasons urged by good men 
in favor of slavery? What is the great objection to slavery? 
Does any enlightened nation to-day tolerate slavery ? Is 
slavery everywhere abolished ? 
Of what use is it to know when and by whom a country was 
discovered? Since one cannot know when and by whom 
all countries were discovered, what discoveries should one 
consider first of all ? What may one be pardoned for not 
I knowing ? 

I Granted that most of what one reads about Soto is destined 
I to be forgotten, what things about him had one better try to 
[ save from such forgetfulness ? 

; The teacher should try to cultivate in his pupils the historical 
[ imagination, — the power to utilize such material as they 
I may have in creating pictures of the past. Let him, for 
example, ask them to describe the burial of Soto, the pic- 
ture to be of their own making. They may be readily led 
to see that the picture should show a river, a company of 
Spaniards in a boat or boats, a priest probably, some signs 
of a burial service, and a general look of sadness. If they 
cannot go further, the teacher may lead them to tell what 



48 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. Ill 



they would like to know to complete the picture, as, for in- 
stance, whether the burial was by day or by night, what kind 
of boats or vessels were used, how the Spaniards were 
dressed, what moment of the service was best fitted for the 
artist, whether in such a picture the expression of faces 
should be brought out, what the effect of midnight might be 
on its details, etc. Young people cannot be expected to do 
a high order of work in this direction, but the beginnings, at 
least, of a valuable training may be made here, and the foun- 
dations laid for making such inquiries as these : 
a. Are pictures of historical events or scenes strictly true of 

all the /details of such events or scenes ? 

3. What sort of truth should these pictures present ? What 

things in the real may be changed or omitted in the« 

picture ? 

c. Is a map true to all the details of the region it shows? 

Would its value be increased by increasing the number of 

its facts? Is its value ever increased by reducing its 

details ? 

(f. Mention some things that are never attempted in pictures. 

e. Select illustrations in this book, and inquire how far they 

may be trusted, and how far not. 
_/; What is the object of a picture in this book? 
g. Select events or scenes in this history that would make 
striking subjects for pictures. 
Work in this vein cannot be carried far without making it clear 
that no one can put into a picture what he has not already in 
mental possession, and that all attempts to see with the mind's 
eye the vanished past involve, first, adding to one's store ma- 
terial that belongs to that past, and, secondly, using one's re- 
sources, old and new, in bringing back that past by an effort 
of the imagination. 
10. Fill out from the text a table somewhat like the following : 



DATES. 


SPANISH EXPLORERS. 


REGIONS VISITED. 


SETTLEMENTS MADE 











Ch. Ill THE SPANIARDS. 49 



TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The Discovery of A merica, vol. ii. : 

1. The ancient city of Mexico, 262-274. 

2. The conquest of Mexico by Cortez, 274-290. 

3. Slaves in ancient times, 427-429. 

4. Negro slaves, 429-432. 

5. Indian slaves, 443-447. 

6. The strong and noble life of Las Casas : 

a. The man himself, 437-441. 

b. His Indian slaves set free, 450, 451. 

c. His connection with African slavery, 454-457. 

d. His preaching of the gospel of peace, 464-465. 

e. His triumph over Spanish slavery, 474-476. 
_/; His deathless fame, 482. 

7. The search for the Northwest Passage, 489, 490. 

8. The Seven Cities of Cibola, 502-507. 

9. The final proof that America is separate from Asia, 544-552. 
EG. Spain and the New World : 

a. Why her colonizing spirit was limited to 1 492-1 570, 

554, 555- 

b. How fighting the Moors moulded the Spanish character, 

SS^^ SS7- 

c. How the Spaniards crushed out independence of thought 

and action, 561-565. 

d. The effect of this on the Spanish character, 566, 567. 

e. How England gave free play to the human mind, 567, 

568. 
/. The effect of this on the English character, 568. 
o". The stamp of Spain and of England on the New World 

to-day, 569. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FRENCH PIONEERS. 1504-1635. 

25. The Fisheries and the French. The first sailors 

to come from France to the New World were Breton 

and Norman fishermen. The abundance of codfish on 

the banks of Newfoundland had been noticed 

The New- 
foundland and reported by John Cabot in 1497, and fish- 

^ ^"^^' ing vessels from various countries soon found 
their way thither. The oldest French name in America, 
that of Cape Breton, is probably as old as 1504; and 
ships from Normandy and Brittany have kept up their 
fishing in those waters from that day to this. Ships 
from Portugal and from Biscay came also, but at first not 
many from England, for the English were used to catch- 
ing their codfish in the waters about Iceland. Gradu- 
ally, however, the English came more and more to 
Newfoundland, and by the end of the sixteenth century 
the fisheries were practically monopolized by French and 
English. 

During that century the fisheries were almost the only 
link between France and the coast of North America. 
In 1 5 18, Baron de Lery tried to found a colony on Sable 
Island, but was glad to get away before starving to death. 
Francis I., who became king of France in 1515, laughed 
at the kings of Spain and Portugal for presuming to 
monopolize between themselves all new discoveries east 
and west. Had Father Adam made them his sole heirs ? 
If so, they had better publish the will! In 1521, war 



§§ 25, 26. FRENCH PIONEERS. 5 1 

broke out between France and Spain, and French 
cruisers began hovering about the western parts of the 
Atlantic, to capture Spanish gold on its way from the 
New World. In 1523, one of these cruisers, a Floren- 
tine, named Verrazano, captured an immense quantity 
of treasure on its way from Mexico. The next verrazano. 
year Verrazano skirted the coast from Cape ■^^2*- 
Fear, in North Carolina, as far probably as the Piscata- 
qua River in New Hampshire ; he seems to have entered 
the Hudson River and to have landed upon Rhode Island. 

The fortune of war went against King Francis, and 
nothing more was done for ten years. Then came 
Jacques Cartier, who sailed up the St. Lawrence carder, 
as far as an Iroquois village situated on an ^^^*- 
eminence which he called Montreal. In 1540-43, an 
unsuccessful attempt was made by the Sieur de Rober- 
val, aided by Cartier, to establish a French colony in 
Canada. Then the French became so much occupied 
with their wars of religion as to give but little thought 
to America for the next half-century. 

26. The Huguenots in Florida. During this period, 
however, there was one memorable attempt at coloniza- 
tion which grew directly out of the wars of religion. 
The illustrious Protestant leader, Coligny, conceived the 
plan of founding a Huguenot state in America, The Hu- 
and, in 1562-65, such a settlement was begun fiorida.'" 
under the lead of Jean Ribault ; but in the 1562-65. 
autumn of the latter year it was wiped out in blood by 
Pedro Menendez, That Spanish captain landed in Flor- 
ida and built the fortress which was the beginning of the 
town of St. Augustine. Then he attacked the French 
colony, overcame it by surprise combined with treachery, 
and butchered everybody, men, women, and children, 
some seven hundred in all ; a very few escaped to the 



52 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IV. 



woods, and after strange adventures made their way back 
to France. 

According to the Spanish government, which laid 
claim to the whole of North America as lying west of 
the Line of Demarcation, these Frenchmen were tres- 
passers or invaders, and deserved their fate. The govern- 
ment of France at that moment was too subservient to 
Spain to call her to account ; but a private gentleman, 
Theven- named Dominique de Gourgues, took it upon 
Gour^^es. himsclf to avcnge his slaughtered countrymen. 
1568. Having fitted out a secret expedition at his own 
expense, he sailed for Florida, surprised three Spanish 

forts, slew every 
man of their garri- 
sons, and returned 
in grim triumph 
to France. This 
was early in 1568. 
Menendez was at 
that time in Spain, 
but he returned two 
years later, and the 
Spaniards kept pos- 
session of Florida. 
27. The Settle- 
ment of Canada. 
It was not until the 
religious wars had 
been brought to an 
end by Henry IV., 
in 1598, that the 

FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. -T rCUCh ^ SUCCeeaeCl 

in planting a colony 
in America. They began to be interested in the north- 




Mr 



FRENCH PIONEERS. 



53 



western fur trade as well as in the Newfoundland fish- 
eries ; and, in 1603, the Sieur de Monts obtained permis- 
sion to colonize a vast tract of land extending from New 
York harbor to Cape Breton, and known as Acadia, a 
name afterward restricted to the northeastern part of this 
region. A monopoly of the fur trade within these limits 
was granted by Henry IV. to a company of which Monts 
was the head. So far as Monts was concerned, the enter- 
prise was a failure ; but one of his companions, Poutrin- 
court, succeeded, in 1604, in making the first permanent 
French settlement in America at Port Royal 

-^ First settle- 

in Nova Scotia. Another of the party, Samuel ment of 

de Champlain, made a settlement at Quebec 
four years later, and became the founder of Canada. 
Champlain was one of 
the most remarkable 
Frenchmen of his time, 
— a beautiful character, 
devout and high-minded, 
brave and tender. He 
was an excellent natu- 
ralist, and has left some 
of the best descriptions 
we have of the Indians 
as they appeared when 
first seen by white men. 
Champlain explored our 
northeast coast very minutely, and gave to many places 
the names by which they are still known. ^ He was the 
first white man to sail on the beautiful lake which now 
bears his name, and he pushed his explorations as far into 

1 From the Hamel portrait engraved in Shea's Charlevoix, vol. ii. 

2 As, for example, Mount Desert, which has retained its traditional 
French pronunciation as far as to keep the accent on the final syllable. 




CHAMPLAIN. 1 



54 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV. 

the interior as to discover Lakes Ontario and Huron. He 
governed Canada until his death in 1635, by which time 
the new colony had come to be quite flourishing. In 
161 1, Jesuit missionaries came over and labored with 
. . remarkable zeal and success in convertins: the 

Jesuits ■» . . 1 T 1 1 r 

among the Indians. Missions were established as far in- 
land as the Huron country, and the good priests 
often distinguished themselves as brave and intelligent 
explorers. The fur trade began to assume large dimen- 
sions, and French rovers formed alliances with the In- 
dian tribes in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. The 
French usually got on well with the Indians ; they knew 
how to treat them so as to secure their friendship ; they 
intermarried with them, and adopted some of their habits. 
28. The French and the Iroquois. Nevertheless, in 
one quarter the French offended the Indians, and raised 
up for themselves a formidable enemy who had much to 
do with their failure to establish their power on a perma- 
nent basis in America, We have seen that Cartier, in 
1535, found an Iroquois village on the site of Montreal. 
There was no such village when Champlain arrived ; 
the Algonquin tribes of the neighborhood had either de- 
stroyed these Iroquois or driven them back upon their 
brethren of the Mohawk valley. Between Algonquins 
and Iroquois there was unquenchable hatred. It was 
natural that Champlain should court the friendship of the 
Algonquin tribes on the St. Lawrence, for they were his 
Enmity be- nearest neighbors. He undertook to aid them 
French and ^S^^^st their hereditary foes. In 1609, he ac- 
the iro- companied them in an expedition against the 
formidable Mohawks, the easternmost of the 
tribes composing the Iroquois Confederacy known as the 
Five Nations. A battle was fought near the site of 
Ticonderoga, and Champlain won an easy victory over 



§28. FRENCH PIONEERS. 55 

the astonished Mohawks, who had never before seen a 
white man or heard the sound of a musket. Battle of 
But this victory, as we shall see by and by, roea"^^ 
was a fatal one for the French. It made the I609. 
Iroquois their deadly enemies. From that time forth, 
the warriors of the Five Nations hated the French with 
unappeasable hatred, and were ready to make alliances 
with any white men who were hostile to the French. 
This should be remembered as one of the most impor- 
tant facts in early American history, and the date of 
this first Ticonderoga battle should not be forgotten. 
It will hereafter be shown how this hostility of the 
Iroquois kept the French away from the Hudson River 
and prevented them from getting control of New York. 

topics and questions. 

25. The Fisheries and the French. 

1. What brought French sailors to the New World? 

2. Why were there so few Englishmen at first on the New- 

foundland banks ? 

3. What did the King of France think of Spanish and Portu- 

guese claims to all new lands ? 

4. How did France harass Spain in America ? 

5. Describe Verrazano's career. 

6. What unsuccessful attempts were made to found French 

colonies during the sixteenth century ? 

26. The Huguenots in Florida. 

1. The settlement of Ribault. 

2. Its destruction by Menendez. 

3. The Spanish reason for its overthrow. 

4. The vengeance of Gourgues. 

5. The nation in final possession. 

27. The Settlement of Canada. 

1. What led the French to renew their efforts to plant colonies? 

2. Give an account of Acadia. 

3. What rights did Monts receive from Henrj' IV. ? 

4. What two settlements grew out of the enterprise of Monts? 

5. Describe Champlain as a man. 



56 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV, 

6. How does he figure in geography and history ? 

7. Tell about the work of the Jesuit missionaries. 

8. How did the French treat the Indians? 
28. The French and the Iroquois. 

1. What Indian friendship did Champlain court? Why? 

2. How did Champlain favor his Indian friends? 

3. Tell the story of the battle of Ticonderoga under the follow- 

ing heads : 

a. The opposing parties. 

b. The date, and a reason for remembering it. 

c. One cause of Champlain's easy victory. 

d. Far-reaching consequences of the Mohawk defeat. 

SUGGESTIVE QUES*riONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Where are the banks of Newfoundland ? What fish are caught 

there ? Why should fish be so abundant there ? How exten- 
sive are the banks ? From what countries do fishermen go 
there ? Who own these banks ? Do fish in the ocean belong 
to any person or any country in particular? Do fish in har- 
bors, rivers, brooks, and inland waters belong to people in 
such a way as to make it wrong for other people to catch 
them? Have the banks of Newfoundland had anything to 
do with history? If so, tell in what way. Find on some 
map the places from which the fishermen mentioned in the 
text used to come to the banks. 

2. Where did the Spaniards get their gold in the New World ? 

Why is gold prized so highly ? What gives it its value ? If 
it were as abundant as gravel, would it retain its value? 
What would continue to be true of it in spite of such abun- 
dance ? What would cease to be true of it because of such 
abundance ? Would one tfe rich if he had plenty of gold, 
but could not exchange it for other things ? 

3. Where, when, why, and by whom was the Line of Demarcation 

established? What history hinges on this line (that is, tell 
something that has happened because such a hne was fixed) ? 
(See pages 32, 33.) 

4. What is meant by a monopoly of the fur trade ? Mention some 

monopoly that exists to-day. Why do the owners of a mo- 
nopoly like it? Why do others frequently dishke it ? If one 
invents something, is he entitled to exclusive control of it ? 
If others seek to appropriate it, what is there to hinder? 



Ch. IV. 



FRENCH PIONEERS. 



57 



How is the monopoly of an invention unlike the monopoly 
of a fur trade ? 

5. What animals furnished fur for the fur trade? What sort of 

trouble was likely to arise about a valuable fur trade in the 
wilderness of America ? What different peoples were deeply 
interested in this trade ? Has this trade been the means of 
affecting American history in any way? If so, tell how. 
What recent trouble has there been over an Alaskan fur 
trade ? 

6. Obtain No. 17 of the Old South Leaflets, entitled Verrazano's 

Voyage. It is a translation of Verrazano's own account of 
his voyage, and the earliest known description of the shores 
of the United States. His account is one of the original 
documents on which historians rely. It will help young 
people to get an inkling of what real investigation is, if they 
will try to answer from the leaflet such questions as these : 

a. What did Verrazano say the object of his expedition 

was? 

b. What facts did he observe about people along the coast ? 

c. Mention some differences between the northern Indians 

and the southern as he saw them. 

d. Tell some sound views about the earth that Verrazano 

held ; also some views of his that have since proved to 

be unsound. 
Let the teacher ask other questix)ns to set his pupils " for- 
aging " in this interesting letter. 

7. Where did the Indians first face firearms ? What was the effect 

upon them ? How did these firearms differ from modern 
ones? Find occasions when the Indians in their fighting 
relied on spears, bows, arrows, and such weapons. 

8. Fill out from the text a table of French explorers in accordance 

with the following plan : 



1 


DATES. 


FRENCH EXPLORERS. 


REGIONS VISITED. 


SETTLEMENTS MADE. 











58 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World: 

1. America a region of wonder and mystery, 9, 10. 

2. Dreams of treasures in Florida, 12, 13. 

3. The adventures of Fernando de Soto, 13-17. 

4. The Indians of Florida in 1565, 36, 42, 50-58. 

5. The bold undertaking of Menendez, 99-104. 

6. The fate of Fort Caroline, 1 14-130. 

7. The massacre of the French settlers, 131-144. 

8. The vengeance of the French, 162-174. 

9. The fisheries of Newfoundland, 188-190. 
ID. The Isle of Demons, 190-192. 

11. Cartier and the Indians of the St. Lawrence, 202-215. 

12. Incidents in the career of Samuel de Champlain : 

a. His curious journal, 238. 

b. Bafiled by the St. Lawrence, 242. 

c. On the coast of New England, 253-256. 

d. The founding of Quebec, 329-331. 

e. A hard winter at Quebec, 333-336. 

f. On the war-path with Indians, 339-347. 

g. Fighting the Iroquois on Lake Cham.plain, 348-352. 
h. Fighting the Iroquois on the St. Lawrence, 354-360. 
i. His trip up the Ottawa, 368-382. 

j. Fighting the Iroquois in their homes, 339-406. 
k. The fall of Quebec, 434-440, 448-450. 
/. The summing up of his life. 452-454. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 1584-1676. 

29. The Coming of the English. The French were 
not the only rivals who came to dispute the claims of 
Spain to the possession of North America. The English 
were rather slow in coming upon the scene, but when 
they came it was to stay. It has been mentioned that 
John Cabot and his son visited portions of the The 
North American coast in 1497-98. They sup- Jabots. 
posed it to be an Asiatic coast, but as they found no 
gold and no evidences of civilization and wealth, their 
discovery was not regarded as important, and for many 
years the English made no attempts to follow it up 
Afterward, however, when the English began to make 
settlements upon this coast, they claimed possession of 
it by virtue of Cabot's discovery. 

The attention of the English began to be turned 
toward America soon after 1560, early in the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth. About that time the famous sailor, 
Sir John Hawkins, began kidnaping negroes sir John 
on the coast of Guinea and bringing them to Hawkins, 
the West Indies to sell them to the Spanish colonists for 
slaves. Very few people in those days could see any- 
thing wrong in slavery ; it seemed as proper to keep 
slaves as to keep cattle and horses. When Hawkins 
was made a knight, he took as part of his coat-of-arms 
the picture of a captive negro bound with a cord. 
I Hawkins was an honest and pious man, but he actually 



6o COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

felt proud of his share in opening up the slave trade, as a 
profitable trade for England. In our time nobody but 
a ruffian would have anything to do with such a wicked 
and horrible business. Changes of this sort make us 
believe that the world is growing to be better than it 
used to be. But the improvement is very slow. The 
slave trade, of which Hawkins was one of the principal 
founders, continued to be carried on after the English 
had made settlements in North America, and slaves were 
brought here from Africa until the year 1808. 

30. The Decline of Spanish Power in America. 
About the time that Hawkins appeared upon the scene, 
Spanish activity in North America was drawing to a . 
close. All the energy of Spain was becoming absorbed I 
in European wars. Since 15 16, the Netherlands had i 
been subject to the Spanish crown; in 1567, their revolt 
against Spain began. It led to a terrible war which J 
lasted more than forty years, until the Dutch provinces ' , 
won their independence. Questions of religion as well , 
as of politics were involved in this war, and as the Dutch 
were Protestants, Queen Elizabeth sent an army to help , 
them, and thus entered into the war against Spain. The 
grand crisis of the war was in 1588, when Philip II., 
king of Spain, sent against England a fleet so great 
The " In- and powerful that it was called the Invincible 
Armada." Armada. There were 132 ships carrying 
1588. more than 3,000 cannon. With the aid of this 

fleet, it was intended to convey across the Channel into 
England a Spanish army from the Netherlands. Many 
people believed that England would now be conquered 
and English liberty destroyed. But the English gath- 
ered together a fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham ; 
the vice-admiral was Sir Francis Drake, one of the 
greatest seamen that ever lived, and among the rear- 



§3°' 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



6x 



admirals was Hawkins. The Spaniards had no com- 
manders equal to these for skill in handling ships. As 
the Invincible Armada entered the Channel, the English 
ships gathered to the west of it, cutting off its retreat 
and wearing out its strength in a long running fight. 
When the defeated Spaniards were driven through the 
Strait of Dover into the North Sea, their doom was 
sealed. Their only means of getting home was to sail 
away to the north and around the extremity of Scotland 
into the Atlantic Ocean, and in this long voyage they 
encountered storms that wrecked nearly all the ships. 
Never in the world has there been a more crushing; over- 
throw than that of 
the Invincible Ar- 
mada. At the time 
when this great bat- 
tle was fought, two 
children had already 
been born in Eng- 
land who were 
destined to play an 
important part in 
carrying English 
civilization into the 
New World. John 
Smith, founder of 
Virginia, was a lad 
of nine years ; John 
Winthrop, founder of 
Massachusetts, was 
a babe of six months. 

Spain never recovered from the terrible blows that 
England dealt her in the course of this long war. The 

^ Facsimile of sketch in Les Marins du XV. et du XV T.Siicles. 




SPANISH GALLEON. 1 



62 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. V. 



principal sources from which Spain got the money for 
her war expenses were the mines of Mexico and Peru, 
Spanish Ships laden with gold and silver were fre- 
shTs"Ind quently starting from the American coasts for 
their fate. Spain, and, after 1570, English cruisers began 
to lie in wait for these ships, and to capture them with 
their treasure. For boldness and vigilance Queen Eliza- 
beth's sea-captains have never been surpassed. Some- 
times they would sail into Spanish harbors and sink the 
war-ships and burn the merchant vessels in full sight of 
the people ; this dangerous pastime was called " singe- 
ing the King of Spain's beard." After this sort of thing 
had gone on for some years, England began to feel her- 
self stronger and more at home upon the ocean than 

Spain. 

31. Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh. These great 
English cruisers were 
also great explorers. 
Drake and Cavendish 
carried Queen Eliza- 
beth's flag into the 
Pacific, visited the 
coast of California, 
and circumnavigated 
the earth. Frobisher, 
in quest of a north- 
western passage to 
India, entered the 
Arctic Ocean and ex- 
plored a part of it. 
But the thoughts of Sir Walter Raleigh were busy with 
grander schemes than these. Raleigh was one of the 

'^ From Stalker's engraving published in London in 181 2. 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 



§31- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 63 

most accomplished men of his time ; he was something 
of a philosopher, poet, historian, and statesman, as well 
as a brilliant captain. In 1569, when he was seventeen 
years old, he served in the religious wars in France under 
the great Coligny, who was probably the first person to 
conceive the idea of planting in America a state that 
should be entirely Protestant. We have seen how the 
colony in Florida, which Coligny tried to found, was de- 
stroyed by the Spaniards ; but the idea lived on in the 
mind of Raleigh, who aspired to " plant an English nation 
in America." In 1584, he obtained from the queen per- 
mission to make a settlement upon any territory 

^ 1 J • J u nu ' ^- Raleigh's 

not already occupied by any Christian power ; attempt to 
and forthwith he devoted himself to the work colony.^ 
of starting such a settlement upon the coast of i5s*-87. 
'North America. He sent several expeditions under able 
captains, though arduous duties at home prevented his 
going in person. A little colony was begun upon 
Roanoke Island, on the coast of what we now call North 
Carolina ; but in those days the general name in English 
for all that coast was Virginia, a name given to it by the 
virgin Queen Elizabeth in honor of herself. The name 
was also given in baptism to the first American child of 
English parents, Virginia Dare, born on Roanoke Island, 
August 18, 1587. For a moment Raleigh seemed likely 
to succeed with his little colony; but the Invincible 
Armada absorbed too much attention. The colony was 
inadequately supported, and perished miserably. After 
some further attempts, in which he lost an amount of 
money that in our times would be equivalent to more than 
a million dollars, Raleigh gave up the enterprise of found- 
ing colonies, as too difficult for a single individual, and 
he assigned all his interests in Virginia to a joint-stock 
company of merchants and adventurers. 



64 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. [' 




ELIZABETH'S AUTOGRAPH.l 

For a few years nothing more was accomplished, but 
Raleigh had done enough to turn the minds of English- 
men steadily toward colonizing North America ; so that 
when we mention the names of the great men who have 
founded the United States, it is right to begin with 
him. In 1 792, the state of North Carolina very properly 
commemorated him by giving his name to her capital 
city. 

32. How Raleigh Pared with King James I. When 
Queen Elizabeth died, in 1603, the King of Scots came 
j^j to be also King of England, as James I. He 

James I. ^^g a droll looking man, without much sense, 
but puffed up with the idea that he knew enough to teach 
all the learned men in both kingdoms. Well meaning in 
many respects, he was tyrannical in disposition, and 
thoroughly false and cowardly. He wished to keep on 
good terms with Spain. There was no man whom the 
Spanish government hated like Raleigh ; and presently 
King James arrested him on a false charge of treason, 
and kept him shut up for twelve years in the Tower of 
London, where he improved his time by writing a de- 
lightful " History of the World." In 1616, the king let 

^ From Winsor's America, iii. io6. 



§§32,33- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 65 

Raleigh out in order to go and find gold in Guiana. This 
was encroaching upon Spanish ground, but James I. 
wanted money, and did not care how he got it. If any- 
thing were to go wrong, he could throw the blame on 
Raleigh. That gallant commander got into a fight with 
the Spaniards in Guiana, but returned to England with- 
out any gold. Then the king revived the old charge of 
treason against Raleigh, and had him beheaded. 

33. The London and Plymouth Companies. But 
Raleigh had lived long enough to see " an English nation 
planted in America." In 1606, some people, interested 
in his schemes, organized a great double-headed com- 
pany for making settlements on the Atlantic coast of the 
New World. One branch of it was composed chiefly of 
London merchants, and the other branch of persons in 
Plymouth and other southwestern parts, and the two 
were known as the London and Plymouth companies. In 
spite of his unwillingness to offend the Spaniards, King 
James was induced to grant a charter to these companies. 
There was much distress in England on account of peo- 
ple being turned out of employment. In the Nether- 
lands there had been a great increase in the weaving of 
woolen cloths, and England is one of the best of coun- 
tries for raising sheep. So English land owners had for 
some time been turning their farms into sheep pastures, 
in order to raise wool to sell to the Dutch. Sheep-rais- 
ing does not require nearly so many men to the square 
mile as the cultivation of wheat and barley ; and so, as 
the small farms were broken up, many men found them- 
selves out of work. In this emergency preachers began 
to declare in their pulpits that " Virginia was a door which 
God had opened for England." King James thought 
there might be gold mines there. The charter was 
granted as follows : — 



66 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. V. 



To the London Company the king granted the coast 
of North America about from Cape Fear to the mouth 
Land of the Potomac ; to the Plymouth Company he 

fhere^com- g^^^nted the coast about from Long Island to 
panics, Nova Scotia. These grants were to go in 
straight strips, or zones, across the continent from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific ;^ for so little was known 
about North American geography that a good many 

people believed the 
here to 
than in 
for the 
startins: 



continent up 
be no wider 
Mexico. As 
middle strip, 
from the coast between 
the Potomac and the 
Hudson, it was open to 
the two companies, 
with the understand- 
ing that neither was to 
plant a colony within 
lOO miles of any settle- 
ment already begun by 
the other. This meant 
practically that it was 
likely to be controlled 
by whichever company 
should first come into 
the field with a flour- 
ishing colony. This 
made it worth while to 
act promptly. 
The charter provided, 

GRANTS TO LONDON AND PLYMOUTH ^"^^^^ O^^er thiUgS, (l) 

COMPANIES, 1606. that the settlers were 

^ This provision was added in the charter of 1609. 




LOinCuN 

CUMI n't 




§§ 33. 34- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 6/ 

to enjoy all the political and civil rights and privileges 
that belonged to free Englishmen at home ; (2) that 
each colony should be governed by a council appointed 
by the king ; (3) that the king should have, as his share, 
one fifth part of any precious metals that might be 
found. 

' 34. The Pounding of Jamestown. Both companies 
made haste and sent out parties of settlers in 1607, ^he 
one to the James River, the other to the Kennebec. To 
the second of these enterprises we shall return by and 
by ; it ended in disastrous failure. The first barely 
escaped destruction, and laid at Jamestown the founda- 
tions of the first permanent English colony in America. 
There were three ships manned by 39 sailors, and be- 
sides these, there were 105 persons, of whom 52 were 
classed as " gentlemen," the rest as tradesmen and me- 
chanics. As for the farmers in search of work, we do 
not hear of them in this first expedition ; nor were there 
any women. The party were more intent upon finding 
gold than upon making new homes in the wilderness. 
Their food gave out, the Indians were unfriendly, and 
soon the settlers were attacked by fever. Within four 
months half of them had died ; but there was one man 
in the company whose energy saved it from utter ruin. 

That man was John Smith. He had been through 
many surprising adventures, if we are to take his own 
word for them. He had been captured by Bar- t^^^ 
bary pirates, left for dead on a battlefield in smith. 
Hungary, and sold into slavery in Turkey, before he had 
made his way home to England in time to come out to 
Virginia. Here his strange fortunes seemed to follow 
him. He was captured by the Indians, and they were on 
the point of knocking him on the head, when a young 
squaw named Pocahontas, daughter of the head war- 



68 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. V. 



chief, rushed up to him, threw her arms about him, and 
saved his Hfe. Such, at least, is his own story. It is 

quite in accordance 
with Indian usage, 
and there is nothing 
at all improbable in 
it ; but it is doubt- 
ed by some people. 
There is no doubt, 
however, that Smith 
was a very energetic, 
quick - witted, and 
shifty sort of man. 
He explored the 
nooks and corners 
of the coast, sailed 
up the rivers, and 
coaxed or bullied the 
Indians into giving 
him food for the coU 
ony. Under his di- 
rection a few rude houses were put up, and a few bits of 
ground were scratched with a hoe and planted with corn. 
Arrival of In this Way two years dragged along, until a 
nfsTs'^rnd ^sw set of 500 colouists arrived. These new- 
their fate, comcrs did not improve matters. They were a 
wretched set, for the most part the refuse of English 
jails, or rufhans picked up about the streets. They came 
in a small fleet commanded by Sir Thomas Gates and 
Sir George Somers ; but the ship which carried these 
two commanders had been " caught in the tail of a hur- 
ricane" and cast ashore upon one of the Bermuda islands. 
There were no provisions of food at Jamestown fit for 

* From the contemporary engraving published in the early editions of 
Smith's writings. 




CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 1 



§§34,35- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 69 

supplying so many people. The old tale of mutiny, hun- 
ger, and disease was repeated. Smith was disabled by 
a severe accident, and returned to England soon after- 
ward. At length. Gates and Somers, having built a 
boat with their own hands and escaped from the Bep 
mudas, arrived upon the scene, and found of all their 
men scarcely sixty left alive. They decided to abandon 
the enterprise and take these few survivors back to Eng- 
land. On the 8th of June, 1610, they had actually em- 
barked and sailed a few miles down the James River, 
when they were met by three well manned ships l^^^ 
bringing an abundance of supplies. This was Delaware, 
the squadron of Lord Delaware, the newly appointed 
governor, who, when he landed at Jamestown, fell upon 
his knees upon the sandy beach, and, with uplifted hands, 
thanked God that he had come in time to save Virginia. 
Within a few months, however, ill health compelled 
Lord Delaware to go home to England, and it was left 
for his successor, Sir Thomas Dale, in the course ^. 

Sir 

of the next five years, to set the colony firmly Thomas 
upon its feet. Two things happened during 
these five years (1611-16) to bring about such a desira- 
ble result. One was the abolition of communism, the 
other was the cultivation of tobacco. 

35. The Colony on its Feet. Hitherto, the system 
under which the colonists had lived was one of commun- 
ism. Land was owned in common, and what- commun- 
ever food anybody raised, or whatever property i^m. 
was got by trading with the red men, was thrown into a 
common pool, to be divided evenly among the settlers. 
The result was that the lazy ones would not work be- 
cause they preferred to throw the labor upon the 
others ; and the industrious ones were not very willing 
to work, since they could not keep the fruits of their 



70 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 



labor. Thus the support of the colony had fallen en- 
tirely upon a few persons of vast energy, like Smith, 
and when these had reached the end of their ability and 
could do no more, the people starved. The sensible 
Dale put an end to this state of things. Henceforth, 
every man was to till his own tract of land, and bring 
two barrels and a half of corn to the public granary ; that 
was paying his tax for the support of the government ; 
whatever he should raise or earn beyond this was to be 
his own private property. No sooner was this change 
made than even the lazy people began to think it worth 
while to work. As for thieves and mutineers. Dale 
hanged them without mercy, until order and decorum 
reigned at Jamestown. 

Just as the people thus began to be set to work in the 
right way, they found that tobacco would buy whatever 
they needed. The smoking of tobacco by the 
natives of America had first been noticed and 
mentioned by Columbus in 1492. The habit was intro- 
duced into England in the reign of Elizabeth, and there 
is an old story that Sir Walter Raleigh's servant, seeing 
him puff clouds of smoke from a lighted cigar, dashed a 
mug of beer over him to put out the dangerous fire ! 
King James did not approve of smoking, and he wrote 
a pamphlet entitled "Counterblast against Tobacco," in 
which he declared that " the vile smoke thereof doth 
most resemble the Stygian fumes of the pit that is bot- 
tomless." But the English people did not mind King 
James very well in this or in other matters. They per- 
sisted in learning to smoke until there came to be a 
great demand for tobacco. Now the soil of Virginia is 
the best in the world for growing tobacco. In 161 2, its 
systematic cultivation was begun by John Rolfe, and it 
became at once so profitable that by 161 6 the settlers 



§§35.36- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 7I 

were giving nearly all their time to it. With a good crop 
of this fragrant weed they could buy whatever else they 
wanted. Now respectable farmers began to come over 
■to Virginia by hundreds, to make their fortunes. In 
161 9, more than 40,000 pounds of tobacco were shipped 
to England ; by 1640, the average yearly export had 
reached 1,500,000 pounds; by 1670, it had reached 
12,000,000 pounds. 

36. The Beginning of Slavery. In order to cultivate 
great plantations of tobacco many laborers were needed, 
and cheap labor would do, because the work ^ 
did not require much intelligence. So the set- slaves, 
tiers, instead of working with their own hands, began to 
buy slaves. In August, 1619, says Rolfe, there came in 
"a Dutch manne-of-war that sold us twenty negars." 
This was the beginning of negro slavery in the United 
States. At first, however, there were more white than 
black slaves. When prisons in England became crowded 
with criminals, they were now and then relieved by send- 
ing shiploads of these wretches to Virginia to be sold 
into slavery for a term of years. This became a profita- 
ble business, and in English seaports there were gangs 
of kidnapers who used to seize upon gypsies, vagabonds, 
and orphan children, and pack them off to Virginia. 
These white slaves were called " indentured servants," 
because the terms and conditions of their servitude were 
prescribed by indentures like those that were used for 
ipprentices in England. After a while these indentured 
servants were set free. Now and then some of the most 
:apable and industrious would acquire small plantations 
or themselves ; some would lead lazy, thieving lives ; 
>ome would go out to the frontier and hunt and fish like 
he Indians. In course of time a good many of these 
oor white people moved westward with the frontier 



I 



72 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch.V. 



until their descendants became scattered far and wide. 
Very few of them came to this country after the year 
1700. By that time negroes were brought from Africa 
in numbers sufficient to do all the work on the plan- 
tations. 

37. Self-Government in Virginia. By the summer 
of 1619, there were 4,000 white inhabitants in Virginia. 
They had a governor appointed by the London Com- 
pany to manage their affairs, and this arrangement would 
probably have satisfied Frenchmen, but it did not satisfy 
Englishmen. From time immemorial Englishmen had 
been in the habit of governing themselves by 

Represen- . . . 

tative gov- meaus of representative bodies. Each township, 
or parish, used to elect some of its own men to 
sit as its representatives in a county court. In the thir- 
teenth century this system had been applied to the 
national government in England ; towns and counties 
chose their representatives to sit in a House of Com- 
mons ; and the principle was established that no power 
but the House of Commons could take away the people's 
money in taxes. Kings sometimes tried to break down 
this principle, but did not succeed. The England from 
which the first colonists came to Virginia was a free 
country, a land of liberty, and the colonists brought with 
them their freedom to America. In 16 19, the 4,000 
people of Virginia were living in eleven distinct settle-; 
ments, or "boroughs." They expressed an earnest 
desire for a representative government, and it was 
willingly accorded to them by the London Company. 
Each borough elected two representatives, or "bur- 
gesses," to sit in the first representative assembly evei 
held in America. It met in the choir of the little churcl: 
at Jamestown on Friday, July 30, 161 9. It was there- 
after known as the House of Burgesses, and it was ir 



§37- 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



73 



fact a little House of Commons for Virginia, holding in 
its hand the power of taxation. Thus was The House 
English self-government transplanted to Vir- g[^^l 
ginia. One of the burgesses in this first as- ^^^Q- 
sembly was named Jefferson, and 157 years later one of 
his descendants wrote our Declaration of Independence. 
King James did not relish these proceedings, and he 
had other reasons for disliking the London Company, 
under whose management such things were allowed to 
go on. That company had grown to be a powerful 




RUINS OF JAMESTOWN.l 

orpcration with more than a thousand stockholders, 
ncluding several members of the peerage and some of 
he richest merchants in England. It was becoming a 
►ower in politics on the side opposed to the king, and he 
lade up his mind to overthrow it. So he accused the 
ompany of mismanagement and brought suit against it 
^ After a sketch made in 1857. From Winsor's America, iii. 130. 



74 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch.V. 

in the courts. Timid and time-serving judges decided 
r, ,, the case in the king's favor, and, in 1624, the 

Overthrow ° ' ' ^' 

of the Lon- company's charter was annulled. Then James 

don Com- , . , , . i i ^ 

pany. sct to work With his own hands to write out a 

code of laws for Virginia ; but while he was 
about it he died, in March, 1625, and his son, Charles I., 
succeeded to the throne. 

38. King Charles I. and the Virginians. As for 
King Charles, he was no more inclined than his father 
to look with favor upon free government in Virginia. 
But he had made up his mind to govern England with- 
out parliaments, and was thus obliged to try to raise 
money in strange and illegal ways, and this got him into 
such serious trouble at home that it left him very little 
energy or leisure for interfering with things in America. 
The House of Burgesses continued to hold the purse and 
to control the management of public affairs in Virginia. 
In 1629, King Charles sent over a governor. Sir 
Harvey. John Harvcy, whose conduct soon became very 
oppressive. He stole money out of the treasury, 
and tried to sell lands that belonged to individual owners. 
After six years, the people deposed this dishonest gov- 
ernor ; and although the king was very angry, and at first 
tried to reinstate Harvey, yet at length he thought it 
prudent to yield, and the people carried their point. 

In 1640, King Charles found it impossible to get on 
any longer without a parliament, and he summoned one 
which he was never afterward able to get rid of. Though j 
many strange things happened to this parliament, it did 1 
The Long not finally come to an end until twenty years ■ 
^ent^ ' had elapsed, and it has ever since been known,, ; 
1640-60. as the Long Parliament. By 1643, civil war hadj , 
broken out between Charles I. and the Long Parliamentijj 
A king who wages war against the representatives of the ! 



5§ 38» 39- 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



75 




OLIVER CROMWELL.1 



people may be accused of committing high treason, and 
to this end it came with Charles. He was beheaded in 
1649, and monarchy was for a 
few years abolished in England. 
Government was in the hands 
of Oliver Cromwell till his death, 
in 1658 ; and then, after a brief 
interval, monarchy was restored, 
in 1660, in the person of the 
late king's son, Charles II., who 
turned out to be a man of worth- 
less character, but never became 
dangerous to English liberty like 
his father. 

39. Berkeley and the Cavaliers. In 1642, just before 
the civil war began. Sir William Berkeley came over to 
be governor of Virginia, and for the next five-and-thirty 
years was the most conspicuous figure in the ^. 
history of the colony. Berkeley, was an aristo- iiam Berke- 
:rat, every inch of him, a man of velvet, and ^^' 
^old lace, a brave soldier, an author whose plays were 
performed on the London stage, a devoted husband, a 
:hivalrous friend, and, withal, a stalwart upholder of king- 
".hip, and (as we shall see) a stern and merciless judge. 
■ie did not be- 
ieve in popular 
government, ^l iM^OllV fi'MiM^ 
.Vhen he heard u 

ome one allude Berkeley's autooraph.2 

o the free schools in New England, he said he thanked 
jod there were no such things in Virginia, nor any 
■rinting press, because too much education was apt to 
'reed a seditious spirit. 

1 From a painting by Sir Peter Lely. 

2 From Winsor's America, iii. 147. 




'j6 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

After the death of Charles I., a good many of his 
friendsj belonging to what was known as the Cavalier 
party, came over and settled in Virginia, because they 
did not like the way in which things were going on in 
England. Among these Cavaliers were the ancestors of 
George Washington and other famous Virginians who 
were engaged in the American Revolution. From 1650 
to 1670, these men came in such numbers as to give a 
Cavaliers distinct Cavalicr tone to Virginian society. In 
in Virginia. England they had been country squires, and 
they kept up a kind of life somewhat similar in Virginia. 
They lived apart on their great estates, which were, for 
the most part, accessible by the rivers with which that 
country is so deeply penetrated. It was a common thing 
for a planter to have his own wharf where he shipped his 
cargo of tobacco in exchange for European merchandise. 
Accordingly, there were few manufactures in the colony, 
few merchants, and no large towns. Life was entirely 
rural. 

40. Berkeley's Tyranny as Governor. Cromwell had 
allowed the House of Burgesses to elect governors of 
Virginia, and accordingly, in 1652, a new governor had 
been elected in place of Berkeley; but when Charles II. 
came to the throne, the House tried to show its loyalty 
by electing Berkeley again, and the king confirmed him. 
Berkeley's rule was oppressive. As the House chosen 
in 1 66 1 was about what he liked, he contrived to keep it 
in existence until 1675, simply by adjourning it from 
year to year ! For coolness one might suppose this sort \ 
, of thing could hardly be surpassed ; but the ' 
grant. king wcut far beyond it. In 1673, he gave away 

the whole country to two of his favorites. Lords 
Arlington and Culpeper, as coolly as if it were an empty 
wilderness ! 



40. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 7^" 

But there were now more than 40,000 white people 
iving in Virginia ; and even with a king to back them, 
t was not easy for two men to come and take possession 
)f all that landed property. The king's silly grant never 
;ame to anything, but it made people very angry. Just 
it that moment, the Indians began burning down the 
nland settlements and murdering their inhabitants, and 
Berkeley had made himself so unpopular that he was 
ifraid to call out the military force of the 

. •' Bacon's re 

:olony, lest it should turn agamst him. So the beiuon. 

1 fi76 

)eople were obliged to defend themselves in 
ipite of the governor. They raised a small volunteer 
;orce, and chose for their captain Nathaniel Bacon, a 
/■oung man of good birth and education who had lately 
:ome over from England. When Bacon marched against 
:he Indians the governor proclaimed him a rebel ; but 
:his raised such a storm among the people that Berkeley 
vas obliged to draw back and issue writs for a general 
election. Bacon was elected a member of the new 
House of Burgesses, and took a leading part in drawing 
jp a memorial which was sent to the king, setting forth 
:he grievous wrongs whicri his faithful subjects in Vir- 
ginia had suffered at the hands of their governor. Twice 
ifter this Bacon started out into the wilderness at the 
lead of his troops in order to punish the Indians, but as 
;oon as he got out of sight Berkeley began behaving s.o 
i.hat it was necessary for him to come back and take 
possession of Jamestown. On the last of these occasions, 
■t was decided to burn the town so that the tyrant might 
,iot find a shelter in it. There were not more than a 
icore of houses, and some of the best of these were set 
ifire by their owners ; which shows how bitterly Berkeley 
lad come to be hated. Soon Bacon died of a fever, and 
Berkeley suppressed the rebellion with great cruelty, 



78 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

hanging twenty or more of the principal people with 
little more than the form of a trial. Charles II. thought 
best to disavow these cruelties, and recalled Berkeley to 
Berkeley's England. The old governor is said to have died 
^^'^" of a broken heart on being reprimanded by the 

king ; it would have been much better if he had felt some 
sense of responsibility toward the people whom he had 
been sent out to govern. 

Very little immediate good was accomplished by Ba- 
con's rebellion, but the memory of it must have sharp- 
ened the determination of Virginians not to submit to 
tyranny. We must now turn aside from the history of 
this colony, to see what had been going on in other parts 
of the North American coast. 

topics and questions. , 

29. The Coming of the English. 

1. What the Cabots supposed the coast to be. 

2. Why the English did not follow up their discoveries. 

3. The nature of their claim to the coast when they made it. 

4. Tell about Hawkins and the slave trade under these heads: 

a. Hawkins as a kidnaper. 

b. What people thought of slavery in his time. 

c. Hawkins's coat-of-arms. 

d. His personal character. 

e. What people think of slavery to-day. 
f. The end of the slave trade. 

30, The Decline of Spanish Power in America. 

1. The war of the Netherlands. 

2. The interest of England in the conflict. 

3. The crisis of the struggle. 

4. Tell about the Invincible Armada under these heads: 

a. The greatness of the fleet. 

b. The thing it aimed to do. 

c. The English mode of attack. 

d. The way back to Spain. 

e. The fate of the Armada. 

5. English cruisers and Spanish gold. 



J, 



Ch. V. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 79 

6. Singeing the King of Spain's beard. 

7. The effect of all this on Spain's power and England's feet 

ing of strength. 
31. Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1. Some English explorers, and what they did, 

2. Raleigh as a man. 

3. Raleigh's grand idea, and where he got it. 

4. His first colony. 

5. The name Virginia. 

6. Raleigh's failure and losses. 

7. The chief thing accomplished by him. 

J2. How Raleigh Fared with King James I. 

1. What kind of a man was the king? 

2. Why did he cast Raleigh into prison ? 

3. Why did he let him out? 

4. How did the king dispose of Raleigh at last? 
J3. The London and Plymouth Companies. 

1. What was the object of these companies? 

2. What distress in England turned men's thoughts to America ? 

3. What land was granted to the London Company ? 

4. What land was granted to the Plymouth Company ? 

5. What plan was made for the middle strip ? 

6. How far were these strips supposed to reach? 

7. What three things did the charter of the companies pro 

vide for ? 

54. The Founding of Jamestown. 

1. What kind of men were the first settlers? 

2. What were they chiefly intent upon ? 

3. What misfortunes befell them? 

4. What surprising adventures did John Smith have? 

5. What did he do for the colony? 

6. Tell about the new arrivals and their fate. 

7. How was the colony saved? 

55. The Colony on its Feet. 

1. The abolition of communism. 
j a. How property was held at finst. 

b. How the system affected the people. 

c. What Dale did to end it, and the result 

2. The cultivation of tobacco. 

a. The first smokers of tobacco. 

b. The smoking habit in England. 



8o COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch.V. 

c. Why the Virginians began to raise tobacco. 

d. The effect on the growth of the colony. 

36. The Beginning of Slavery. 

1. Why did the Virginians want slaves? 

2. The first cargo of negro slaves. 

3. White slaves from England. 

4. What became of the white slaves when set free ? 

37. Self-Government IN Virginia. 

1. Tell how Virginia was governed in 161 9. 

2. How had Englishmen always governed themselves? 

3. How far had they got in self-government in the thirteenth 

century ? 

4. Describe the Virginian borough. 

5. Tell about the first representative body in America. 

6. How did King James show his dislike for Virginian self- 

government ? 

38. King Charles I. and the Virginians. 

1. How did King Charles view free government in Virginia? 

2. What kept him from interfering much with Virginia? 

3. What experience did Virginia have with one of his gov- 

ernors ? 

4. What was the result of Charles's fight with Parliament? 

39. Berkeley and the Cavaliers. 

1. Berkeley as a man. 

2. Berkeley's views of popular government and education. 

3. The coming of the Cavaliers. 

4. The sort of life they lived. 

5. The character they gave to the colony. 

40. Berkeley's Tyranny as Governor. 

1. The governor and the House of Burgesses. 

2. The king's silly grant. 

3. How Bacon became a rebel. 

4. Fighting the Indians and the governor. 

5. The suppression of the rebellion. 

6. Berkeley's fate. 

suggestive questions and directions, 
I. What is a coat-of-arms ? What is the use or object of a coat- 
of-arms? -Who are entitled to have one? Describe the 
coat-of-arms of your State? Explain its meaning? Do pri- 
vate American citizens have coats-of-arms ? If so, why? 



Ch. V. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 8l 

2. Is the slave trade carried on anywhere to-day? If so, where? 

What is the attitude of civilized governments towards such 
trade ? 

3. Why should the overthrow of the Invincible Armada be de- 

scribed in a history of the United States? 

4. Did Enghsh cruisers seize Spanish treasure-ships at any time 

they pleased, or only in time of war ? During what years 
was England at war with Spain ? 

5. What was the early Portuguese route to the East Indies ? How 

did the Spaniards try to get there? What way did the 
English try to find ? What is the favorite route from Eu- 
rope to-day ? What new route may be estabhshed in the 
not distant future ? Give reasons why one route should be 
preferred to another. 

6. Mention some of the reasons that led English people to come 

to America in the early times. 

7. How far west did the grants to the London and Plymouth 

companies extend ? Who gave them these lands, and by 
what right ? Were English sovereigns in the habit of giv- 
ing lands outright, or did they exact something in return for 
them ? Cite instances to show their practice. To whom 
were payments or other returns for such lands regarded as 
belonging, — to the sovereign personally or to the Enghsh 
people ? 

8. W^hat was the first permanent colony within the limits of the 

present United States? The second? The third? The 
fourth ? Is a first colony or settlement of any more real 
consequence than a second or a third? If so, show why. 
Mention some first things of any sort that are highly re- 
garded. 

9. Tell the story of Jamestown from the beginning to its destruc- 

tion. 
to. Fill out the second column of a table like the following, get- 
ting the data from pages 69, 70 : 



VIRGINIA UNDER A SYSTEM OF 

COMMUNISM. 



Land owned in common. 

Gains pvit into a common pool. 

I-ivinR cli.irges borne by the community. 

Idleness encouraged. 

Miserj' increased. 



UNDER DALE S PLAN. 



Land? 
Gains ? 

Living charges ? 
Idleness ? 
Misery ? 



82 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

Under what plan do people live nowadays ? Under what 
plan did the Indians live, at least in part ? Which is the 
better plan ? Does either plan abolish misery ? 

1 1. Is it a good thing or bad that people have to work for a living ? 

If there is work enough for people to do, and they will not 
do it, and consequently suffer, ought they to be pitied and 
helped? Is there work enough for all people? If there is 
work enough, how happens it that people are thrown out of 
work from time to time ? What people ought to be relieved 
from the necessity of work? How do you like Dale's views 
about work ? As a rule, were American colonists good 
workers? What exceptions have you noted? Does a new 
country call for more and harder work than an old one? 
Why? 

12. What is an apprentice? What are indentures? (See Web- 

ster's International, or any standard dictionary.) Let two 
pupils illustrate indentures by signing some simple agree- 
ment in duplicate and then separating the parts after the 
original fashion so that each pupil may retain one. Why is 
the name " indentures " still used when the original reason 
for the name has ceased to exist? Think of other names in 
use, though the reasons for giving them no longer apply, as, 
for example, " coat-of-arms." 

1 3. Mention some things for which white people are indebted to 

the American Indians ; also some things for which these In- 
dians are indebted to white people. 

14. Compare the earlier settlers of Virginia with those that came 

over from 1650 to 1670. From what class did Jefferson de- 
scend ? Washington ? What is meant by the saying that 
" blood tells " ? Does it tell in a sense that forbids one's 
rising from humble birth to a high place ? Mention some 
American lives to support your view. 

15. What was there so particularly cool in King Charles II.'s gift 

to Arlington and Culpeper ? Was this gift any cooler than 
that of King James to the first Virginian colonists? What 
distinction, if any, exists between the two cases? 

16. Was Berkeley right in calling Bacon a rebel ? What consti- 

tutes a rebel ? Who was nearer the right in Bacon's rebel- 
lion, Berkeley or Bacon ? What was Berkeley's idea of the 
best government? What was Virginia's idea of the best 
government ? Which idea fares the better under a system 



Ch.V. the ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 83 

of free schools ? Who are the more likely to protest against 
bad government, the educated or the ignorant ? With which 
class can tyrants more easily deal ? 
17. Let each pupil make out a list of names prominent in early 
Virginian history, with one or two conspicuous facts about 
each, following the form here given : 



NAMES. 


DATES. 


ONE OR TWO CONSPICUOUS FACTS. 









TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from John Esten Cooke's Virginia, A History of the 
People. Published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, in the 
series of "American Commonwealths," edited by Horace E. 
Scudder. 

The selections recommended here as well as elsewhere are pur- 
posely limited to a few matters that are lightly touched in the text. 
They are designed to show the richness, dramatic interest, and 
color that belong to events whose treatment in a school history is 
reduced to the baldest outlines, and to awaken a desire to read 
beyond the modest bounds suggested. 

u The rise and fall of Jamestown, 16-22, 274-283. 

2. The ancient Virginians, 27-33. 

3. The story of Pocahontas : 

a. How she saved Captain Smith, 35, 36. 

b. Her personal appearance, 36. 

c. How she befriended the colonists, 37, 38. 

d. Her marriage, 95-97. 

e. Her life in England, 100-103. 

4. Incidents in the life of Captain John Smith : 

a. The terrible summer of 1607, 22-26. 

b. His voyage toward the South Sea, 33, 34. 

c. Not dazzled by fool's gold, 41, 42. 

d. His voyage to the Chesapeake, 43, 44. 

e. Another struggle for food, 49-55. 

f. Overthrown at last, 63-67. 

g. The kind of man he was, 68-76. 



84 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

5. The wreck of the Sea Venture (the ship of Gates and Somers 

mentioned on page 68, whose wreck is beUeved to have sug- 
gested to Shakespeare his "Tempest"), 57-61. 

6. The maids and the first slaves, 1 19-124. 

7. The great rebeUion of 1676: 

a. The causes, 231-235. 

b. The central figure, 238-240. 

c. The first act in the drama, 241-243. 

d. The arrest of Bacon, 244-246. 

e. The forgiveness of Bacon, 247-249. 

f. The flight of Bacon, 257, 258. 

g. Bacon demands his commission, 259-262. 
//. Was Bacon a traitor 1 264-274. 

i. The white aprons at Jamestown, 274-283. 
j. The death of Bacon, 283-292. 
1i. Berkeley's cruel vengeance, 292-297. 



i CHAPTER VI. 

! NEW ENGLAND. 1602-1692. 

41. Unsuccessful Attempts at Settlement. It will 
be remembered that, in 1606, a great double-headed com- 
pany was incorporated in England for the purpose of 
making settlements in North America. We have seen 
how one branch of it, the London Company (sometimes 
also called the Virginia Company), succeeded in found- 
ing the colony of Virginia. The region assigned to the 
other branch, known as the Plymouth Company, as a 
field for its enterprise, was the portion of the coast 
lying between Long Island and Nova Scotia, or from 
about 41° to 45° north latitude. This region was for 
some time called North Virginia, and an attempt at 
founding a colony in it had already been made, j^^^^j^ 
in 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold, who named Virginia 

-^ and the 

Cape Cod and Martha s Vineyard, and built a Plymouth 
house on the island of Cuttyhunk, but was °"^P^"y- 
driven back to England by want of food. Almost every 
year after 1602 one English captain or another visited 
some part of this North Virginia coast. We have seen 
that, in 1607, when the London Company sent its set- 
tlers to Jamestown, the Plymouth Company also sent 
out an expedition. The persons chiefly interested in it 
were Sir John Popham, chief justice of England, and 
Sir Ferdinando Gorges, commander of the garrison at 
Plymouth. The colony which they tried to found is 
usually spoken of as the Popham colony. The settlers 



86 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI 

built some huts near the mouth of the Kennebec River, 
and spent the winter of 1607-8 there, half starved and 
half frozen. Then they went home and said there was 
no use in Englishmen trying to live in such a cold 
country. 

It will be remembered that Captain John Smith left 
the Jamestown colony in 1609. Five years afterward 
he came with two of the Plymouth Company's ships 
to North Virginia, explored the entire coast between 
Cape Cod and the mouth of the Penobscot, and made a 
map of it. He called the country New England, by 
North which name it has ever since been known. 

Virginia Qu this map he put the name Charles River, 

becomes '■ '■ 

New Eng- in honor of " Baby Charles, afterward King 
Charles I. Curiously enough, too, he put the 
name Plymouth just where the town was afterward 
founded ; and of his other names. Cape Ann still re- 
mains. Other captains visited the coast after Smith, 
but it was not till late in the year 1620 that settlers 
came to stay. We have next to see what brought these 
settlers. 

42. Puritans and Separatists. The Protestant ref- 
ormation, set on foot in England in the reign of 
Henry VHI., was finally secured, in 1588, by the defeat 
of the Spanish Armada. In some respects it was a 
very incomplete reformation ; it did not even try to se- 
cure freedom of thought or freedom of worship. At 
the present day, in the most civilized countries, a man 
may hold any opinions that may seem right to him with 
regard to matters of religion ; he may proclaim his 
opinions by voice or in print ; he may go to any church 
he likes or to no church at all ; and he may or may not 
pay something toward the support of a minister, just as 
he pleases. In the days of Queen Elizabeth there was 



§42. NEW ENGLAND. 8/ 

no country in the world where such liberty was allowed. 
No such thing had ever been heard of since the world 
began, and people would have thought it a sure and quick 
way of bringing the world to an evil end. By the ref- 
ormation in England, the sovereign was made ^, „ , 

, , 1-1 • -^"^ Refor- 

the head of the church in that country instead mation in 
of the pope, and there were some changes in "^ ^" ' 
doctrines and in ceremonials ; but everybody was re- 
quired to conform to the church as thus modified, and 
everybody was taxed to support it. Those who refused 
to conform were persecuted. 

Among the Protestant reformers there were a good 
many who were not at all satisfied with the doctrines 
and ritual of the English church as arranged in Queen 
Elizabeth's time. They wished to make further changes, 
simplifying the government of the church and dropping 
some of the ceremonies. This they considered purify- 
ing the church, and thus they came to be called The Puri- 
Puritans. Most of the Puritans had no inten- *^"^- 
tion of leaving the Church of England ; they wished to 
stay in it, and change it according to their own notions. 
But, as early as 1567, a small number of ministers, 
despairing of accomplishing what they wanted, made 
up their minds to separate from the church and to hold 
religious services in private houses. In 1580, a clergy- 
man named Robert Brown went about advocating this 
policy of separation, and those who adopted it were 
[known as Separatists or Brownists. They did The Sepa- 
tiot believe in having bishops to rule over "^^tists. 
:hem. Some of them denied that the queen was the 
lead of the church, and this was very dangerous talk ; 
(it was liable to be called treason. The Separatists were 
accused of sedition, many were thrown into jail, some 
,.vere hanged, and Brown fled from the kingdom. This 



88 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



The Pil- 
grims in 
Holland. 



I 

sort of thing went on from time to time for the next 
thirty years. 

43. The Pilgrims in New England. At Scrooby, a 
hamlet in Nottinghamshire near the edge of Lincoln,! 
there was a congregation of Separatists who listened to' 
the eloquent preaching of John Robinson. In 1608, in 
order to escape persecution, they fled in a body to 
Holland, where there was much more religious 
liberty than in England or any other country 
in the world. They settled at Leyden, and 
were joined by other refugees from England until there 

were more than a 
thousand of them. 
They were well treated 
in Holland, but they^ 
knew that if they 
stayed in that coun- 
try their children and' 
grandchildren would 
gradually lose their 
English speech and 
nationality and 
come Dutchmen, 
cordingly, some 
them decided that it would be better to go, like " pil- 
grims," to America, and found a little state there for 
themselves. They made up their minds to try the 
coast of New Jersey, and got permission from the 
London Company to settle there. Some English mer- 
chants furnished them with money on pretty hard terms, 
because it was a risky enterprise. King James refused 
to grant them a charter, but made no objection to their 
going. So in July, 1620, a little band of Pilgrims sailed 
in the ship Speedwell from Delftshaven in Holland to 




HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS. 



be- 

Ac- 
of 



(43- NEW ENGLAND, 89 

Southampton in England, where the Mayflower was 
Awaiting for them with friends. Both ships started to 
:ross the ocean, but the Speedwell leaked so badly that 
:hey were twice obliged to put back. At length, on the 
[6th of September, the Mayflower started alone from 
Plymouth in Devonshire, with iust one hun- 

•' •' Voyage of 

Ired passengers, men, women, and children. theMay- 
rhe weather was bad, and they did not come to 
mchoronthe American coast till the 21st of November. 
They had gone so far out of their way that instead 
)f New Jersey it was the northern shore of Cape Cod 
where they found themselves. But they concluded to 
;tay there and get permission from the Plymouth Com- 
Dany, which would be easy to do because that corpora- 
ion was anxious to have settlers. So the Pilgrims held 
I meeting in the cabin of the Mayflower, and drew up a 
:ompact in which they announced their intention of mak- 
ng such laws as should be needed for the general good 
)f the colony, and all agreed to be bound by pou^^jj^ 
;uch laws and to obey them. They chose John oi the 

1 , . A / T Plymouth 

^arver to be their governor. After spendmg colony. 
;ome time in exploring the coast, they landed 
it length, on the 21st of December, on the spot marked 
m Smith's map as Plymouth. There they put up a 
arge rude cabin to shelter them from the winter's cold, 
)ut their sufferings were intense. More than half their 
lumber, including Governor Carver, died that winter, 
|)ut instead of going home in the spring, the survivors 
let about building houses for themselves. William 
Bradford was chosen governor, and from that time until 
[lis death, in 1657, he was reelected every year except 
ive ; and those five were years when he declined to 
erve. The other chief leaders of the Pilgrims were 
<Villiam Brewster and the stout soldier, Miles Standish. 



90 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch.VL 




PILGRIM RELICS. 1 



In the spring of 1621, they made a treaty with Massa- 
soit, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, who lived be- 
tween Cape Cod and Narragansett Bay, and 

Massasoit ^ t -t, ^ r\ 

and Canon- this treaty was not broken till 1075. Over 
to the west of Narragansett Bay dwelt the 
powerful tribe of Narragansetts, and their chief, Canon- 
icus. He sent a messenger to Governor Bradford with 
a bundle of arrows tied up with a snake's skin. The 
messenger threw this bundle into the little Plymouth 
village, and ran away as fast as his legs could carry him. 
Bradford understood this to be a declaration of war, 
so he stuffed the snake's skin full of powder and bul- 
lets, and sent it back to Canonicus. The Indians then 
knew just enough about firearms to be superstitious 
about them ; they believed that white men wielded 
thunder and lightning, and, on the whole, Canonicus 

1 From Winsor's Af/ien'ca, iii. 279. i belonged to Governor Carver} 
2 belonged to Dr. Samuel Fuller, the physician of the Pilgrims ; 3 belonged 
to Miles Standish. 



}§43, 44- NEW ENGLAND, 9I 

;oncluded that he had better keep quiet and leave the 
Plymouth people alone. 

By dint of hard work, the Pilgrims paid up the mer- 
:hants who had advanced money for their enterprise. 
\t first their colony grew very slowly. In 1630, it con- 
:ained only three hundred persons ; but after that time 
;hey began to profit by the great emigration Growth of 
;et on foot by the Company of Massachusetts *^® colony. 
Bay, and their numbers increased much faster. In 1640, 
:he population of the Plymouth colony had reached 
learly 3,000; by 1670, it had reached 8,000, distributed 
imong twenty towns. 

44. The Puritans in New England. When Charles 
[. came to the throne, in 1625, the Puritan party in 
England was very powerful, and comprised many men 
)f wealth, culture, and high social position, King 
Charles's reign began very badly ; as we have already 
)bserved, he was determined to get along without par- 
iaments, if possible, and to rule just as he pleased. In 
VTarch, 1629, he turned his parliament out of doors, and 
lid not summon another one until 1640. Meanwhile, 
)0me small bodies of Puritans, encouraged by the 
example of the Pilgrims, had begun to make settle- 
nents upon the shores of Massachusetts Bay. In 1628, 
^ohn Endicott, of Dorchester, took command of a place 
vhich the Indians called Naumkeag ; he called the little 
:olony which was beginning to be planted there by the 
3ible name of Salem, or " Peace." A number of lead- 
ng Puritans in England bought from the Plymouth 
Company a large tract of land including all the coun- 
ry between the Charles and Merrimack rivers, The Com- 
ind stretching inland indefinitely. Then they M^sLdm- 
;ot a charter from Charles I. incorporating ^^^s Bay. 
hem as the Company of Massachusetts Bay. The 



92 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VL 



affairs of this company were to be managed by a 
governor, deputy governor, and council of eighteen 
assistants, to be elected annually by the members of 
the company. They could make any laws they liked 
for their settlers, only these laws must not conflict 
with the laws of England. The place where the com- ' 
pany was to hold its meetings was not mentioned in 
the charter. Accordingly, in 1629, having become 




JOHN WINTHROP.l 

thoroughly disgusted and somewhat alarmed at the 
king's conduct, the company decided to take its charter 
over to New England and found a self-governing com- 
munity there. No attempt was made to interfere with 
them, and it may be supposed that the king was not 

1 From a painting in the State House at Boston, attributed to Vandyke. 



i44- NEW ENGLAND. g^ 

jnwilling to have a large body of eminent Puritans 
^eave England and get out of his way. 

In 1630, John Winthrop, of Groton, came over to 
Salem with eleven ships, bringing nearly 1,000 persons, 
A^ith quite a stock of horses and cattle. John Winthrop, 
Dne of the wisest and noblest men of his time, ^ ,. 

' Founding 

»vas the real founder of the Massachusetts Bay of the Mas- 
:olony, and its first governor. During the year colony. 
1630, settlements were made at Dorchester, 
Roxbury, Charlestown, and Watertown. Governor Win- 
:hrop moved his headquarters first to Charlestown, and 
:hen to a small hilly peninsula whereon the highest 
lill was crowned with three summits. The Indians 
called the place Shawmut, but the English called it 
Frimountain, or Tremont, in allusion to its triple hill ; 
:he name was soon changed to Boston, after the ven- 
erable town of that name in Lincolnshire, from which 
5ome of the leading settlers had come. 

The Puritan followers of Winthrop had not been 
Separatists, like the settlers of Plymouth, but soon after 
ending in America they separated themselves com- 
pletely from the Church of England. The Episcopal 
service was much simplified, and the greater _ . 

r . . . Episcopal 

part of it discarded. There were no bishops service 
3r dioceses in Massachusetts, but just simply 
Darishes, each with its minister elected by the parish- 
ioners. It soon appeared that no kind of Episcopal 
:hurch would be allowed in the colony, for two gen- 
:lemen at Salem, who favored the Episcopal form 
)f worship, were put on board ship and sent back to 
England. 

When the first Massachusetts towns were settled, each 
lad but one church ; there was one for Watertown, one 
or Dorchester, and so on. Thus, the inhabitants of the 



94 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 



town and the congregation of the church were the same 
persons. When they met for church business, as to 
choose a minister or to admit new members, it was a 
parish meeting ; when they met for civil business, as to 
appropriate money for making a road or building a 
schoolhouse, it was a town meeting. In either case, it 
was a meeting of free people who governed themselves. 
In England the small patch of country which furnished 
members to a single church was usually called a parish, 
but it was still often called by the much older name of 
township. When settlers came over from England to ! 
Massachusetts, they usually came in congregations led 
„ . , by their ministers, and settled together in [ 

Parishes -^ . _ ° . : 

and town- parishes, or townships. In this way, the soil- 
^ '^^' of Massachusetts gradually became covered 

with little self-governing republics, called townships, or! 
towns, each about six or eight miles square, with a 
village street for its centre, surrounded by spreading! 
farms. The church in the village was used not only 
for religious services, but also for transacting public 
business, and was always called the meeting-house. At 
a later time it was used only as a church, and another 
building, called the townhouse or townhall, was used 
for public business. The meeting-house and town- 
house usually stood beside a large open grazing-ground, 
or common, and in early times this village centre was 
apt to be placed upon high ground in order that the 
approach of hostile parties of red men might 
England morc easily be detected. On or near the 

village. , . .„ J. . 

common, there was, m many villages, a tort 
or blockhouse, built of heavy timbers, where the peoplt 
could take refuge in case of sudden attack. Some ol 
the best dwellings in the village, though built of wood 
were apt to be made so strong for defensive purposei 



§44- NEW ENGLAND. ge 

that they have survived down to the present day, some- 
times in very good condition. 

By the year 1634, nearly 4,000 settlers had arrived, 
and about twenty villages, or parishes, with an average 
population of two hundred each, had been founded. 










i.,. 




^^v'*^" 



MINOT HOUSE IN DORCHESTER, MASS. (1633-1640).! 

The building of houses, fences, roads, and bridges was 
going on briskly. Lumber, furs, and salted fish were 
sent to England in exchange for clothes, tools, and books, 
or whatever articles were needed ; thousands of cattle 
were already grazing in the pastures, while pigs rooted 
in the clearings, and helped to make ready the land for 
the plowman. Wheat and rye and other European 
grains were soon made to grow here, but the settlers 
were greatly benefited by the native maize, or Indian 
:orn, which they found cultivated by the red men. 

Amid the hurry of pioneer work the interests of edu- 
cation were not forgotten. In order to keep their 
'government safely under their own control, the settlers 
I * One of the oldest wooden houses in North America. 



96 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



allowed nobody but members of their own Congrega- 
tional churches to vote at elections or to hold office. 
In order to fit growing children for membership in the 
Congregational churches, it was necessary that they 
should know how to read the Bible, and common 
schools were founded for this purpose. So many of 
the leading settlers were university graduates, mostly 
from Cambridge, that a college seemed necessary for 
the colony. In 1636, it was voted to establish such a 




^.^^l6^y'^^^^y>^'^55%^/^<<%'(>^^ (oTM/c^nd. ' 



college at Newtown, three miles west of Boston. Two 
Founding ycars later, a young clergyman, John Harvard, : 
Coiiege!^'^ dying childless, bequeathed his books and half 
1636. his estate to the new college, which was forth- 
with called by his name ; while in honor of the mother 

1 From the oldest known print of Harvard College, engraved in 1726; 
and representing the college as it appeared when ninety years old. It is 
now in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society. The 
building on the right, Massachusetts Hall, is still in use. 



f§45.46. NEW ENGLAND. q^ 

jniversity, the name of the town was changed to Cam- 
Dridge. 

45. Enemies of the New Colony. In all these things 
;he settlers of Massachusetts were going ahead and 
ioing just as they pleased. King Charles did not like 
:o see such liberties taken with affairs of church and 
state. Besides, the new colony had some bitter enemies 
n England, among others, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and 
Captain John Mason, who had intended to colonize the 
New England coast with settlers of their own and for 
:heir own benefit. In 1636, the king enter- charies i. 
;ained a scheme for annulling the Massachu- ^'ith^M^^'^ 
jetts charter and dividing up the land of the sachusetts. 
settlers among these hostile and rival parties. When 
;he people in Massachusetts heard of this plot they 
prepared to defend themselves. Forts were built in 
md about Boston harbor, with cannon to sink intrud. 
ing vessels, every village put its militia band in training, 
md a beacon was set up on the highest summit of the 
;riple hill to alarm the neighboring country in case of 
leed. Ever since then the hill has been known as 
Beacon Hill. But the danger was postponed by events 
in the Old World. War broke out in Scotland, and 
^ave King Charles so much to think about that he 
Forgot Massachusetts. But in later years, fresh Mason and 
trouble arose with Mason and Gorges and Gorges, 
their friends. Some of Mason's people made settle- 
ments near the mouth of the Piscataqua River, and this 
was the beginning of what was afterward called New 
Hampshire. A few settlements along the coast of 
Maine were made by Gorges. 

46. Dissatisfied Settlers. Among the settlers who 
came to Massachusetts, there were some who did not 
like the way in which things were managed there. Of 



98 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI 



Founding 
of Rhode 
Island, 
1636-43 ; 
Roger Wil- 
liams. 



these dissenters the most famous was Roger WilHams, 
who became pastor of a church at Salem, in 
1633. He was one of the noblest men of his 
time. Some of his opinions were such as 
very few people then held. He advocated the 
entire separation of church from state, declared 
that no man should be obliged to pay taxes to support 
a minister, that magistrates had no right to punish 
Sabbath-breaking or blasphemy, and that a man is re- 
sponsible for his 
opinions only to 
God and his own 
conscience. He 
also declared that 
the king of Eng- 
land could not 
rightfully give, 
land in America 
to English set- 
tlers, because this 
land belonged not 
to the king of 
England but to 
the Indians. The 
magistrates and 
clergy of Massa- 
chusetts could not endure such opinions, and Williams 
was ordered to return to England. But he escaped into 
the wilderness, and made his way to the Narragansett 
Indians, whose language he learned to speak fluently. 
He entered into very friendly relations with that tribe 
of red men, and procured from them a tract of land 

^ This buildiqg is still standing, just back of the Essex Institute. 




ROGER Williams's church in salem (1633).! 



§46. NEW ENGLAND. 99 

upon which, in 1636, he began to build a town. Thus 
far had God's mercy provided for him ; so he called the 
town Providence. He also named his next born son 
Providence, and his next daughter Mercy. 

In that same year, 1636, in which the town of Provi- 
dence was founded, there was a violent theological 
dispute in Boston, occasioned by the teachings of Mrs. 
Anne Hutchinson, a very bright and well-edu- . 

. f^ Anne 

cated lady from Lincolnshire. She held pecul- Hutchin- 
iar opinions about "grace" and "good works," 
and such a bitter controversy arose on these matters as 
to endanger the existence of the colony. Some men 
refused to serve in the militia because they did not 
agree with what the minister said in his Sunday ser- 
mon. So Mrs. Hutchinson was banished from Massa- 
chusetts. With some of her friends and adherents she 
bought the island of Aquidneck from the Indians for 
forty fathoms of white wampum, twenty hoes, and ten 
coats. The island soon came to be called Rhode Island, 
and at the upper end of it Mrs. Hutchinson and her 
friends founded the town of Portsmouth. Soon after- 
ward, William Coddington and others built the ^ , ,. 

° Codding- 

town of Newport at the southern end of the ton ; Gor- 
island. In 1643, a man of queer ideas, named 
|Samuel Gorton, who had been driven from one settle- 
ment after another, founded the town of Warwick. After 
a while these various settlements coalesced under one 
government, forming a colony known as Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations. 

All Mrs. Hutchinson's friends who were driven from 

Boston did not go with her to Narragansett ^, „. 

^ ... The Pis- 

Bay ; some went in the opposite direction and cataqua 

settled Exeter, not far from the towns of 

Dover and Portsmouth, which Mason's men had already 



lOO COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

founded. Mason died about this time, leaving no one 
to push his claims vigorously, and people from Massa- 
chusetts founded the town of Hampton. In 1641, these 
four towns were added by their own consent to the do- 
main of Massachusetts, and so the matter stood until 
1679, when King Charles II. marked them off, with the 
wild country behind them, as the royal province of New 
Hampshire. 

47. The Beginnings of Connecticut. In the course 
of the year 1636, the beginnings of Connecticut were 
made. The Dutch, as we shall presently see, had 
already founded the colony which afterward became 
New York, and they laid claim to all the territory as far 
east as the Connecticut River. In the summer of 1633, 
the Dutch built a fort about where Hartford now stands, 
Dutch and ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ Same summcr, some Pilgrims from 
Pilgrims on Plymouth wcut up the river in a small ship, 

the Con- /, , . ; , , , K 

necticut With the frame of a wooden house on board. 

As they approached the fort at Hartford the 
Dutch told them to turn back or they would be fired 
upon ; but the Pilgrims kept on their way and the 
Dutch concluded not to fire. The Pilgrims set up their 
house on the site of Windsor and began trading with 
the Indians. 

The fur trade was the chief object for which English 
and Dutch wished to possess this region. Each wished 
to monopolize such a gainful trade. The younger John 
Winthrop, son of the founder of Boston, and one of 
the most accomplished men of his time, saw the im- 
TheS portance of the situation. In 1635, he estab- 

Brooke lished at the mouth of the river a fort which 

shut out the Dutch and made it impossible for 
them to keep hold of their position at Hartford. Two 
of Winthrop's principal patrons were the well-known 



§ 47- NEW ENGLAND. lOI 

Puritan noblemen, Lord Say and Lord Brooke, and 
after them the fort was called Say-Brooke, 

In the course of this year, twenty vessels came from 
England to Massachusetts, bringing 3,000 settlers. 
There was plenty of room for all near Boston if they 
had been able to agree on questions of government. 
But many people thought the clergy were getting too 
much power, and disapproved the policy of allowing 
none but church members to vote. These feelings 
were especially strong in Dorchester, Watertown, and 
Cambridge (then still called Newtown). The pastor at 
Cambridge was Thomas Hooker, one of the Thomas 
most learned and eloquent of the Puritan lead- ^oo^^r. 
ers. He believed that the whole people ought to be 
governed by the whole people, or as nearly so as pos- 
sible. In other words, he believed that all the people 
ought to take, part, directly or indirectly, in the work 
of governing ; that those who do not themselves hold 
office at least ought to vote. On the other hand. Gov- 
ernor Winthrop believed that a large part of the people 
are always unfit to take part in governing. He believed 
that the whole people ought to be governed by a part of 
the people, supposed to consist of the best and wisest 
persons. Thus we see that Winthrop's idea of govern- 
ment was aristocratic, while Hooker's idea was demo- 
:ratic. One hundred and sixty years later (i 790-1 800), 
:here was the same kind of opposition be- , . ^ 

^ '■ _ Anstoc- 

;ween two other great men, Alexander Hamil- racy vs. 
:on and Thomas Jefferson. The question as 
.0 just what is the best kind of government is a difficult 
question, and probably the last word on the subject has 
lot yet been said. 

We do not hear of any bitter quarrel between the 
)eople who thought like Winthrop and those who 



I 



102 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI 

thought like Hooker. What happened was that, in 
1636, a great part of the congregations of Cambridge, 
Watertown, and Dorchester journeyed to the Connecti- 
cut valley, of which they had heard that it contained 
Settlement much fine mcadow land well fitted for farming, 
tkut"""^*^ The Cambridge people, led by Hooker, founded 
1636. Hartford, the Dorchester people settled Wind- 
sor, and those from Watertown settled Wethersfield. 
About the same time, William Pynchon led a party from 
Roxbury to the meadows above Windsor, and founded 
the town of Springfield. 

All these four river towns at first allowed themselves 
to remain part of Massachusetts, and Springfield has 
always remained so. But early in 1639, the people of the 
other three towns met at Hartford and agreed to govern 
themselves according to a written constitution drawn up 
by Hooker and others. By this constitution the three 
towns, Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, 

The Con- • i • it i • i 

necticut were united into a republic, which came to be 
founded by Called Connecticut. This seems to have been 
constitu" ^^^ ^^^^ ^^"^^ ^^ ^^^ history of the world that 
tion. a state was created by a written constitution. 

In the colony thus founded there was no re- 
striction of suffrage to church members. 

48. The Overthrow of the Pequots. Before the 
memorable meeting at Hartford, the settlers had their 
first taste of Indian war. All the tribes in New Eng- 
land belonged to the Algonquin family. Among them 
we have already had occasion to mention the Wam- 
indian panoags in the Plymouth colony, and the Nar- 
tribes in ragausctts on the bay of that name. To the 

southern •' 

NewEng- wcst of the latter, in the valley of the river ^ 

since called Thames, dwelt the Pequots ; west 
and northwest of these, between the Thames and Con- 



§48. NEW ENGLAND. IO3 

necticut valleys, lived the Mohegans. The Pequots 
bullied the neighboring tribes with impunity, and were 
considered invincible. 

Several murders of white men, for which the Pequots 
were at least partly to blame, determined the govern- 
ment at Boston to call that tribe to account. In the 
summer of 1636, John Endicott attacked them and 
sought to bring them to terms, but this attack, ^ , , 

° ° Troubles 

in which a few were killed, only served to en- with the 
rage them. They tried to induce the Narra- ^^"° ^" 
gansetts to join them in warfare upon the English, but 
the influence of Roger Williams over the Narragansett 
tribe prevented this, and the Pequots went into the war 
without allies. The new settlements in the Connecticut 
valley were dangerously exposed, and there the savages 
began their bloody work. They made no general attack, 
but skulked about near the settlement, waylaid a few 
persons at a time, and put them to death, often with 
;rightful tortures. Some of the victims were burned 
dive, others were hacked to pieces with stone knives. 

In the spring of 1637, the English made up their 
ninds to put an end to this sort of thing. The Con- 
lecticut towns sent out ninety men under Captain 
Mason, and these were joined by twenty from Massa- 
:husetts, commanded by Captain Underbill, as well as 
)y seventy Mohegans who were glad of such a chance 
or vengeance upon their old tyrants, the Pequots. The 
greater part of the Pequot warriors were col- The Pe- 
ected in a circular stockaded fort by the {|n°[ecL""'" 
Cystic River, near the site of Stonington. ^637. 
The Indians made a mistake in cooping themselves up 
n a fort ; they would have been much safer if scattered 
bout in the woods. The little English party surprised 
he fort an hour before dawn. A barking dog aroused 



I 



I04 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VL 



the sleeping Indians, and the cry "Owanux, owanux!" 
(Englishmen !) was heard, but it was too late. Mason 
already held one of the entrances, and Underhill the 
other; firebrands were hurled among the wigwams, and 
in a few moments the whole inclosure was in a light 
blaze. The few Indians who escaped the flames were : 
at once shot down. Of more than four hundred in the 
fort, only five got away ; all the rest were killed. This 
terrible blow completely crushed the spirit of the Pe- ■ 
quots. The remainder of the tribe started to fly to the 

Hudson River, but 
they were pursued 
by the white men i 
and were nearly all ' 
slain. The last of 
their sachems was 
captured at a point ' 
on the shore of what 
is now Guilford ; his ' 
head was cut off and 
set upon a pole, and 
the place has even 
since been called Sa- 
chem's Head. Thus 
the Pequot tribe, so 
long deemed invincible, was wiped out of existence, and 
all the other tribes were so terrified that not an Indian 
dared to molest a white man again for nearly forty years. 
49. The New Haven Colony. While this war was 
going on, a large company, including many wealthy 
persons, arrived from England, under the lead of their 
principal pastor, John Davenport. They wished to 




PLAN OF PEQUOT FORT.l 



^ From Palfrey's N'ew England, i. 466. 
original drawing by Captain Underhill. 



A reduced facsimile from the 



§§ 49, 50- NEW ENGLAND. IO5 

form a little state by themselves, with no law except 
that which could be found in the Bible ; for example, 
they would not have trial by jury because the laws of 
Moses did not have it. The Pequot war drew the atten- 
tion of the English to the country along the northern 
shore of Long Island Sound. So these new-comers, in 
the spring of 1638, sailed to a pleasant harbor, where 
they founded the town of New Haven. The next year 
Milford and Guilford were founded, and, in Founding 
1641, Stamford: and these little towns joined of the New 

^ 1 1 • i-irri i- Haven col- 

themselves together m a kmd 01 federal union ony. 

known as the New Haven colony. This was 

the last separate colony founded in New England. In 

1644, the little settlement at Saybrook was joined to 

Connecticut. 

50. The Story in Brief of the Five New England 
Colonies. Taken all together, the colonization of New 
England was a rather complicated affair ; and now that 
we have told the story, it is worth while to sum up the 
situation briefly for the sake of greater clearness. First, 
then, there were, by the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, five New England colonies. By far the most 
populous was Massachusetts, or, as it was called for a 
hundred and fifty years, Massachusetts Bay. In 1650, 
this population was mostly confined to Boston and about 
thirty other villages in the three neighboring counties. 
Everywhere else was the wild forest. Northeast of 
Massachusetts was the little group of New Hampshire 
tillages already mentioned, and the scattered settle- 
nents on the Maine coast, but as yet these had not 
jrown into distinct colonies so as to be ranked in our 
^roup of five. South of Massachusetts was Plymouth, 
he second of our five colonies, but first in age and often 
:alled the Old Colony ; it extended southward as far as 



I06 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

Yarmouth and westward as far as Taunton. The third 
colony, called Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
has already been described. The fourth colony was 
Connecticut. The fifth was New Haven. 

In 1643, the rebellion against Charles I. had broken 
Condition out, and the great emigration of Puritans to 
oni*ef fn ^'^' Ncw England came to an end. Some people 
1643. even went back to England to help their 

brethren against the tyrannical king. By this time 
there were about 26,000 people in New England, of 
whom more than 5,000 had been born there ; all the 
rest came from England. Away from the coast all the 
people were farmers ; on the coast all were farmers and 
fishermen. As a rule, every man owned the house in 
which he lived and the land which he tilled. Already 
the houses were well built and comfortable, and the 
condition of the people was very far above that of Euro- 
pean peasants. The ministers were mostly men of great 
learning and high character. Education was general. 
The first printing press north of Mexico was set up in 
Cambridge, in 1639, ^^^ the first volume printed on it 
was the celebrated Bay Psalm Book, in 1640. 

As for the governments of these five colonies, we 
have already seen that the Company of Massachusetts 
Bay was chartered by Charles I., and that after it had 
come to New England the king repented of what he had 
done and meant to take away the charter, but was pre- 
vented by troubles at home. The governments of the 
other four colonies were made by the people without 
Popular consulting the king in any way. In the writ- 
mTnt^" ten constitution of Connecticut, there was no 
in d^of"^ mention of a king or any other authority what- 
them. ever except that of the people themselves. In 

all the five colonies there was a legislature, usually called 



§§ 50-52. N£W ENGLAND. lO/ 

the General Court, consisting of representatives from 
each of the towns. The people also elected their gov- 
ernors ; and we have seen how they managed their 
church affairs without the slightest regard to the opin- 
ions or wishes of the king and the bishops in England. 

51. The New England Confederation. In 1643, the 
four colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, 
and New Haven formed a confederation for purposes 
of defense in case of attacks or depredations by the 
Dutch on the Hudson River, or the Indians. The name 
o^ the confederation was " The United Colonies of 
New England." Its affairs were managed by a board 
of eight commissioners, two from each colony. This 
board undertook to call out troops in case of .^.j^^ ^^^ 
need, and to settle disputes between the colo- England 

T T 1 • r • '11 Confeder- 

nies. It did not mteriere in any way with the acy. 
independent internal government of each col- ~ ' 

ony. Rhode Island was not admitted into the confed- 
eration, because there was so much ill feeling toward 
the followers of Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson. 
The people of New England did not ask anybody's per- 
mission when they formed this confederation, but for 
the present there was nobody in England liable to dis- 
turb them. The party which overthrew the king, and 
beheaded him, in 1649, was in sympathy with the men 
of New England. The mighty Oliver Cromwell was 
their friend. So there were twenty years of remarkable 
peace and prosperity, until after Charles II. had been 
restored to his father's throne. 

52. The Persecution of the Quakers. At the time 
\vhen that event occurred, in 1660, there was fierce ex- 
:itement in Boston. We have seen how the magistrates 
ind clergy in that little town used to drive away such 
men as Roger Williams and others whose opinions they 



I08 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

disapproved. But at length some people who held very 
unpopular opinions came to Boston, and would not go 
away when they were told to go. These resolute people 
were Quakers. Belonging to one of the noblest and 
purest of Christian sects, they were, nevertheless, re- 
garded with horror by the Puritans of New England, 
and all the colonies except Rhode Island made laws 
against them. But as the Quakers came over from 
England not so much to escape persecution as to preach 
their doctrines, they were not satisfied with staying in 
Rhode Island where nobody molested them. They in- 
sisted on coming into Massachusetts. Those who came } 
Persecu- wcrc bauishcd under penalty of death ; but .1 
Quakers they returned, and at length, in 1659, two were '] 
1659-61. hanged on a gallows erected on Boston Com- 1 
mon. The next year, Mrs. Dyer, a Quaker lady of good 
family, was hanged at the same place, and, in 1661, there [ 
was one more victim. This excess of severity defeated j 
its own purpose. A majority of the people in Boston 
disapproved of the executions, and at the last one the 
magistrates feared an insurrection and a rescue. The 
tragedy ended, in 1661, with the victory of the Quakers, 
when one of their number, the brave Wenlock Christi- 
son, strode into the court room and with uplifted finger 
threatened the judges. '' I am come here to warn you," 
said he, "that ye shed no more innocent blood." He 
was seized and condemned to the gallows, but the magis- 
trates did not dare to execute the sentence. After that 
time Quakers were now and then imprisoned or whipped, 
but they had proved that if they chose they could come 
to Boston and stay there. 

This putting Quakers to death was a great assump- 
tion of authority on the part of the Massachusetts gov- 
ernment. Charles II. denied that the government had 



§§ 52, 53- NEW ENGLAND. IO9 

any such authority, and, in 1661, he issued an order in 
council forbidding the General Court of Mas- Action of 
sachusetts to inflict bodily punishment upon feglrdin"' 
Quakers, and directing it to send them to Eng- Quakers, 
land for trial. This order was never obeyed in Massa- 
chusetts. 

53. The King's Quarrel with New England. There 
were, however, plenty of malcontents in England who 
had been sent back there because the Puritans of the 
New World did not like their society. Such persons 
poured their grievances into the royal ear. They said 
that the people of New England were all rebels at heart ; 
and it was not strange if King Charles was inclined 
to believe such stories. The colony of New Haven 
had especially aroused his anger. Two of the regicide 
judges, who had sat in the court that condemned his 
father, had escaped to New England, and of- Theiegi- 
ficers were sent across the ocean in pursuit "'^^^■ 
of them. If the judges had been caught and taken 
to London, they would have been disemboweled and 
quartered, and their severed heads would have been set 
up on Temple Bar. These two judges, whose names 
were Goffe and Whalley, had been generals in Crom- 
well's army. They found refuge in New Haven, where 
the bold minister, Davenport, openly aided and com- 
forted them. They were never caught, but lived the 
rest of their days in New England. Some of their es- 
:apes were romantic enough ; it is said that once, when 
'lotly chased, they came to a small river, and crawled 
inder the wooden bridge, where they lurked while the 
pursuers galloped overhead and away on a fruitless 
search. 

King Charles contrived to punish New Haven in such 
I way as to snub and irritate Massachusetts. The 



no COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

latter colony agreed with New Haven in allowing none 
but members of the Congregational church to vote or 
hold office, and both colonies disapproved of Connecti- 
cut's more liberal policy. So the king, in 1662, sup- 
New Ha- pressed the New Haven colony and annexed it 
nexed"to to Connecticut. At the same time, he granted 
cx)nnecti- ^q Connecticut a very liberal charter which in 
1662. substance confirmed the constitution of 1639. 

Rhode Island also received a similar charter. As for 
Massachusetts, she was ordered, among other things, to 
permit the Episcopal form of worship, but she paid no 
heed to the order. For a moment she seemed in danger 
of losing her charter, but presently affairs in England 
occupied the king's attention so that Massachusetts was 
for several years more allowed to go on in her own way. 
54. King Philip's "War. During this interval, New 
England was afflicted by a terrible Indian war. As a 
rule, the settlers treated the natives with justice and 
kindness. The learned John Eliot translated the Bible 
into their language, and converted many by his preach- 
ing. In 1674, there were 4,000 Indians in New England 
„ , . who professed to be Christians. Schools were 

Relations '■ 

with the In- introduced among them, and many learned 
to read and write. The English always paid 
for the land which they occupied. But the Indians 
hated them none the less for that. They felt that the 
white men were there as masters ; they dreaded them, 
and keenly watched for a chance to destroy them. 
Besides, the English could not wholly keep clear of the 
quarrels between the different tribes. The Mohegans 
were always their friends, but this very fact made the 
Narragansetts their enemies. In 1643, a war between 
these two tribes resulted in the capture of the famous 
Narragansett sachem, Miantonomo, who was put to 



§54. NEW ENGLAND. HI 

death by the Mohegans with the full consent and ap- 
proval of the English. This made the Narragansetts 
thirst for revenge, but they remembered the fate of 
the Pequots, and it was long before they dared to move. 
By 1670, the red men had acquired a good many fire- 
arms and become expert in the use of them, so that 
they were not so unequal a match for the white men as 
formerly. About this time, there seems to have been 
some kind of an understanding on the part of three 
tribes that at the first opportunity the English should 
be attacked. The three tribes were the Narragansetts, 
the Wampanoags, and the Nipmucks who roamed in 

3t|| the highlands of what is now Worcester County. The 

' first attack was made by the Wampanoags 
under their sachem called Philip, a son of ip's war. 

;jjt Massasoit ; and the war has always been known 

; as King Philip's War, although the Narragansett Canon- 
chet, son of Mian- 

bljjtonomo, played a ^,^^R^J3 a^cci,^^*^^C&/^SI^ 
more extensive part / _/• i) ^ 

in it. In June, ^^ \mavA^ 

, 1675, the Wampa- king philip-s mark.i 

noags burned the 

village of Swanzey and three other villages in the 
Plymouth colony, and murdered many of the inhabit- 
ants. Some of the victims were burned alive. The 
Wampanoags were soon put down, but Philip escaped 
to the Nipmucks, and these savages carried on the war 
for a .year, burning and slaughtering all the way from 
the Connecticut River, which was then the western 
frontier, even to within a dozen miles of Boston. In 
December, the Narragansetts were about to begin, but 

^j. .the English detected their schemes and were before- 

^ From The Memorial History of Boston, i. 325. 



112 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

hand. Canonchet had collected more than 3,000 of his 
Indians in a palisaded fortress in the middle of a great 
swamp in South Kingston, Rhode Island. A force 
of 1,000 white men took this place by storm and de- 
stroyed it, slaughtering more than 1,000 Indians. By 
midsummer of 1676, the three tribes concerned in the 
war were annihilated. Nearly all the warriors, includ- 
Extermi- ing Canouchct and Philip, were killed ; those 
the'indian ^^^ wcrc left wcrc sold as slaves in the West 
tribes. Indies and elsewhere. The Tarratines, along 

the Maine coast, took up the fight and carried it on till 
1678, when they too were finally suppressed. Scarcely 
any Indians were left within the New England colonies 
except the friendly Mohegans. But this was not accom- 
plished until terrible havoc had been wrought among 
the English, chiefly in Massachusetts and Plymouth. 
Of ninety towns, twelve had been utterly destroyed, 
while more than forty others had been the scene of fire 
and massacre. More than a thousand men had been 
killed, and a great .many women and children. There 
was a great war debt, which it took several years to pay. 
55. The Viceroyalty of Andres. Soon after the 
close of King Philip's War, King Charles found his 
hands free to take up his old quarrel with Massachu- 
setts. Part of this quarrel related to the claims made 
by that colony to rule over the eastern settlements 
made by Mason and Gorges. The king's judges decided 
these claims against Massachusetts. Then Massachu- 
setts bought Maine of the heirs of Gorges, paying 
;^i,200 for it. This made the king very angry; he can- 
celed the transaction and told Massachusetts to keep 
her hands off from Maine. As for the Mason territory, 
the king now (1679) made it a royal province, and called 
it New Hampshire. 



§55 



NEW ENGLAND. 



"3 



These things created much ill feeling in Massachu- 
setts, but still more serious trouble was caused by 
navigation laws passed by Parliament interfering with 
the trade of the colonies. These laws were generally 
disobeyed, and the 
king thought it high 
time to enforce 
them. But the most 
grievous offense of 
Massachusetts, in 
his eyes, was the re- 
fusal to allow Epis- 
copal churches in 
the colony, or to let 
anybody but Congre- 
gationalist church 
members vote or 
hold office. 

Now by this time 
a majority of the 
grown men in the 

icolony were not church members, and they did not 
like to be governed by a minority. So there grew up 
a small party opposed to the clergy and inclined to side 
with the king. This was the beginning of the Tory 
party in New England, and Joseph Dudley may be con- 
sidered its founder. The quarrel went on, growing 
more and more bitter, until 1684, when the -j-heannui- 
king succeeded in annulling the charter of Mas- ling of the 

r ^, . ■, ,1 charter of 

sachusetts. This destroyed the government Massachu- 
which had begun in 1629. Before Charles II. 
had completed his arrangements for a new govern- 
ment he died, early in 1685, and was succeeded by his 

^ After an engraving in Andros Tracts, vol. i., made from a photograph 
of a portrait painted from life. 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS.l 



114 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



James II. 
sends An- 
dros to gov 
em the 
northern 
colonies. 
1685-89. 



brother, James II. The new king sent over one of his 
favorite officers, Sir Edmund Andros, to govern all 
New England as a viceroy. As we shall see 
hereafter, the French in Canada were getting 
to be dangerous neighbors, and the British 
government wished to unite all its northern 
colonies under a single ruler, so that it might 
be easier to put forth all their military force quickly. So 

not only all of 
New England, but 
New York and 
New Jersey, like- 
wise, were put 
under the abso- 
lute rule of An-, 
dros. He wasj 
directed to seize 
the charters of 
Connecticut and, 
Rhode Island, but 
failed to do so., 
When he visited' 
Hartford, in 1687, 
he could not find 
the charter; it is 
said that Captain 




THE DOMINION OF NEW ENGLAND UNDER SIR 
EDMUND ANDROS, 1688. 



Wads worth had, 
hidden it in the! 
hollow trunk of a mighty oak-tree, which was always 
afterward called the Charter Oak. 

Andros had his headquarters in Boston. He began 
building an Episcopal church there, still known as the 
King's Chapel ; and until it, was done he had Episco- 
pal service performed in the Old South Meeting-house r 



§§55,56. NEW ENGLAND. II5 

The people did not like this, but they had to submit to 
things which they liked still less. Their legislature was 
abolished, arbitrary taxes were levied, men were Tyranny of 
arrested and sent to jail, and estates and goods ^^'^''os- 
were confiscated without due process of law. Dudley 
!was appointed censor of the press, and nothing was 
allowed to be printed without his permission. Thus, 
as there was no security for person or property, and 
no way for people to express their opinions, the gov- 
ernment of Andros was a despotism. It was like the 
government which his royal master was trying to set 
up in England and Scotland. If it had continued, there 
would certainly have been a rebellion in New England. 
But James II. had reigned less than four years when 
he was dethroned, and fled from the kingdom, and his 
lephew, William III., Prince of Orange, was made king 
of England. No sooner was the news of this , 

c" Insurrec- 

'inown in Boston than the people rose in in- tioninBos- 

ton and 

jurrection, April 18 and 19, 1689 ; Andros and overthrow 
Dudley were thrown into prison, and the old 
government was restored. This revolution extended 
hrough New England and into New York. 

56. King William's Arrangements in 1692. But 
<.ing William, when he arranged things in 1692, only 
)artly sanctioned these proceedings. He let Connecti- 
':ut and Rhode Island keep their old and beloved char- 
'ers. But as for Plymouth, he annexed it to Massachu- 
etts, of which it has ever since remained a part. He 
:ept New Hampshire a separate province, but ^^^ ^^_ 
le annexed to Massachusetts not only Maine rangements 

^ under Wil- 

'Ut even Nova Scotia, which had lately been Uam iii. 
aken from the French. He allowed Massa- 
husetts to keep her free government, with her town 
'leetings and elected legislature ; but henceforth Epis- 



i 



Il6 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI 

copalians and others beside Congregationalists were to 
vote, and to hold office, and to have their own churches. 
Many people approved of these liberal provisions, and 
in course of time all would have done so. But there 
was one thing in this new charter of 1692 that people 
did not approve. Henceforth, the governor was not to 
be elected by the people, but appointed by the crown. 
The small Tory party liked this well enough, but 
nobody else did. The royal governors, as they were 
called, were almost always unpopular, even when they 
were able and good men. Soon after 1692, they entered 
upon a series of quarrels with the legislature, and these 
quarrels continued until the bloodshed on Lexington 
green, in 1775, ushered in the War for Independence. 

The events just related tended to bring Massachusetts 
and Virginia into sympathy with each other. In con- 
tending against their royal governors, the people in each 
of these colonies had a sore grievance to remember. 
Virginia did not forget the tyranny of Berkeley, nor did 
Massachusetts forget the tyranny of Andros. 

topics and questions. 

41. Unsuccessful Attempts at Settlement. 

1. The country of North Virginia. 

2. Gosnold's colony. 

3. The Popham colony. 

4. Captain John Smith and North Virginia. 

5. Smith's map of the country. 

42. Puritans and Separatists. 

1. What religious liberty exists to-day ? 

2. Tell about such liberty in Queen Elizabeth's time. 

3. What changes were brought about in England by the refor- 

mation ? 

4. What requirements of people were still made there ? 

5. What did the Puritans wish to accomplish ? 

6. Why were the Separatists so called? 

7. Why were they persecuted ? 



Ch. VI. NEW ENGLAND. 1 17 

43. The Pilgrims in New England. 

1. Why did the Separatists go to Leyden? 

2. Why were they not content to stay in Holland? 

3. What plans for going to the new world did they make? 

4. Describe the voyage. 

5. Tell about their first winter at Plymouth. 

6. How did the Pilgrims deal with the Wampanoags ? 

7. How did they deal with the Narragansetts ? 

8. Tell about the growth of Plymouth colony. 

44. The Puritans in New England. 

1. The colony of Massachusetts Bay. 

a. The Puritan party in the times of Charles I. 

b. The settlement of Salem. 

c. The land bought from the Plymouth Company. 

d. The management of the Company of Massachusetts 
Bay. 

e. The transfer of its charter. 

2. The great settlement. 

a. John Winthrop's expedition. 

b. Various settlements made in 1630. 

c. The founding of Boston. 

3. The Puritans as Separatists. 

a. Were they Separatists in the mother country ? 

b. How far did they modify the Episcopal service ? 

c. How did they finally treat loyal Episcopalians? 

4. Parishes and townships. 

a. The settlement and its single church. 

b. The town meeting and the parish meeting. 

c. The first settlers came over as what bodies? 

d. The Massachusetts township. 

e. The meeting-house and the townhouse. 

f. The common. 

g. Homes for defense. 

5. Prosperous beginnings. 

a. The extent of the settlements in 1634. 

b. The kinds of business carried on. 

c. Indian corn. 

6. Education. 

a. The first voters. 

b. The object of the first schools. 

c. The founding of Harvard College 



% 



Il8 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

45. Enemies of the New Colony. 

1. The king's displeasure. 

2. The hostihty of Mason and Gorges. 

3. What scheme grew out of these feeHngs? 

4. How the people made ready to defend themselves. 

5. The beginnings of New Hampshire. 

46. Dissatisfied Settlers. 

1. Roger Williams. 

a. Some of his opinions. 

b. The consequence of holding them. 

c. The founding of Providence. 

2. Anne Hutchinson and her friends. 

a. The reason for her banishment. 

b. The settlement of Rhode Island. 

c. The colohy of Rhode Island and Providence Planta- 

tions. 

d. The Piscataqua towns. 

e. The royal province of New Hampshire. 

47. The Beginnings of Connecticut. 

1. The Dutch and the En^ish. 

a. The Dutch claim. 

b. The Pilgrims and the Dutch fort. 

c. Why possession of the region was sought. 

d. The " Say-Brooke " fort. 

2. Thomas Hooker. 

a. The flocking of settlers to Boston. 

b. Differences about the method of government. 

c. Hooker's views on the subject. 

d. Winthrop's views on the subject. 

e. The two ideas briefly expressed. 

f. The same ideas nearly two centuries later. 

g. The migration to Connecticut. 

3. The four river towns. 

a. Their names. 

b. Their allegiance at first. 

c. The Hartford agreement. 

d. An interesting fact about this agreement. 

e. The management of the suffrage. 

48. The Overthrow of the Pequots. 

1. Locate four of the Algonquin tribes. 

2. How did the Pequots trevat their neighbors? 



:h.VL ■ NEW ENGLAND. II9 

3. Why did the English seek to punish the Pequots? 

4. How was Captain Mason's expedition made up? 

5. How did the Pequots plan to defend themselves? 

6. Tell about the fight. 

7. What was the effect of the terrible lesson given the Pequots r 
1.9. The New Haven Colony. 

1. What kind of a state did John Davenport's company wish 
to form? 

2. Where did the new-comers settle ? 

3. What was the colony made up of? 
The Story in Brief of the Five New England Colonies, 

1. Name the five colonies. 

2. When did the Puritans stop coming over, and why? 

3. Tell about {a) the population of New England in 1643, (b) 
the occupations of the people, {c) their homes, {d) their 
love of education, and {e) their first printing. 

4. Compare Massachusetts with each of the other colonies in 
respect to government. 

5. In what respect did the five governments agree? 
The New England Confederation. 

1. Why was it formed? 

2. By whom was it managed? 

3. What did the commissioners undertake to do ? 

4. What did they refrain from doing ? 

5. Why was Rhode Island left out? 

6. Why did England fail to oppose this scheme ? 
The Persecution of the Quakers. 
. I. How did the Puritans regard the Quakers? 

2. What penalties did they inflict on the Quakers? 

3. What was the effect of this severity? 

4. What action did Charles II. take about the matter? 
The King's Quarrel with New England. 

1. The stories told him about the New England people. 

2. How New Haven especially excited his anger. 

3. The pursuits of the regicides. 

4. Points of agreement between New Haven and Massachu 
setts. 

5. How the king punished them both. 
King Philip's War. 

1. The general treatment of the Indians by the settlers. 

2. The secret of the Indians' hatred of the white man. 



r20 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VLi 

3. How the English angered the Narragansetts. 

4. The Indian situation in 1670. 

5. How the war got its name. 

6. How the war was carried on. 

7. Canonchet's overthrow. 

8. The result of the war to the Indians. 

9. The havoc wrought among the English. 

55. The Viceroyalty of Andros. 

1. Massachusetts and her rule of the eastern settlements. 

2. Massachusetts and the navigation laws. 

3. Massachusetts and the Episcopal church. 

4. The beginning of the Tory party. 

5. The annulling of the charter in 1684. 

6. James II. and Andros. 

7. The reason for uniting the colonies. 

8. The extent of Andros's rule. 

9. Two charters saved. 
ID. Andros and his church. 

11. The tyranny of Andros. 

12. The overthrow of Andros. 

56. King William's Arrangements in 1692. 

1. What he did (a) with Connecticut and Rhode Island, (d 

with Plymouth, (c) with New Hampshire, ((f) with Maine 
and (e) with Massachusetts. 

2. A feature of her charter that Massachusetts did not like. 

3. Quarrels with the royal governors. 

4. The upshot of these quarrels. 

5. How Massachusetts and Virginia were brought into mutua 

sympathy. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. What was the difference between the Pilgrims and the othe 

Puritans? In answering this question, consider (a) thei 
differences in religious belief, (d) the reasons why they cam 
over, (c) who were the more tolerant, and (d) who left, 
the whole, the stronger impress on New England history. 

2. What is meant by a tolerant spirit? Are there any opinion 

that ought not to be tolerated ? If so, of what character ar 
they? Is there any conduct that ought not to be tolerated 
If so, of what character is it? Should all things that ougl: 
not to be tolerated be forbidden by law ? Does a tolerar, 



Ch. VI. 



NEW ENGLAND. 



121 



I 5. 



spirit require one to accept or indorse an opinion toward 
• which he is tolerant.? Mention some things the Puritans 
would not and could not endure, but which people cheerfully 
permit to-day. Mention any instance of intolerance you 
have noted among your acquaintances or in yourself. Who 
are the more tolerant, the ignorant or the educated ? In 
Fiske's The Beginnings of New England, find what John 
Cotton, John Winthrop, and Roger Williams each thought 
of toleration. 

What instances of suffering for food are recorded in the history 
of American colonists.'' Why should there have been any 
"suffering on this account ? What forethought needs to be 
exercised today that people may not starve when winter 
comes? Is there any country where the inhabitants use no 
forethought, and yet have enough to eat? If so, describe 
the country, and tell what sort of people it supports. 

Mention {a) some American names derived from European per- 
sonages, ib) some from European places, {c) some from 
Indian sources, and {d) some from other sources. Give the 
origin and meaning of the names of your state, county, and 
city or town. The teacher may show how history lurks in 
names as originally used, though it is generally unheeded in 
theic subsequent applications.' Thus, in England, Norfolk, 
or the north folk, is north of Suffolk, or the south folk, as 
history requires, while in Massachusetts Norfolk is south of 
Suffolk in defiance of history and the meaning of the names. 

Were the Indians more cruel than the whites in New England 
warfare? Had they a just cause in King Philip's War? 
Had the colonists a just cause ? In what sense may both 
parties have been in the right ? 

Make out a table of the five New England colonies as they 
existed in 1650, following the model here given: 



! 

s 


NAMES OF THE COLONIES. 


FIRST SETTLEMENTS. 


DATES. 


BY WHOM. 


1 











7. Tell something about the Great Rebellion in England, and how 

it affected New England. 

8. Tell something about Oliver Cromwell. 



122 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI 

9, Who were the regicides ? Give some idea of their number. 
What reasons did they have for that action which made 
them regicides? Who approved their action and who de- 
nounced it ? What is meant by the divine right of kings ? 
Do Englishmen admit sucli a right to-day ? 

10. Why were the Puritans so bitter against the Quakers ? To what 

excesses of conduct did extreme persons among the Quakers 
go? How did Roger Williams treat the Quakers? Show 
how the Quakers triumphed at last. (For answers see Fiske's 
The Beginnings of New England.) 

11. Fill out the following table to cover New England history from 

1620 to 1692 : 



ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 


YEARS OF REIGN. 


ONE OR TWO NEW ENGLAND EVENTS 
IN EACH REIGN. 









12. Why did King Charles II. annul the charter of Massachusetts? 

What rights was Massachusetts deprived of by this act? 

13. What was the reason for annexing the New Haven colony to 

Connecticut? The Plymouth colony to Massachusetts? 

14. Rhode Island has two capitals, and Connecticut had two down 

to 1873. Account for these capitals. Why did not Massa- 
chusetts have two capitals after 1692? 

15. What was the object of the navigation laws? Why were they 

disobeyed? Was it right for New Englanders to disobey 
them? What is the proper attitude of the good citizen 
toward a foolish or unwise law? Is general disobedience 
of law and authority ever justifiable ? Was the overthrow 
of Andros justifiable ? 

16. What was the leading or characteristic belief of the English 

Tory ; that is, with what party did he side ? Was he con- 
servative or progressive ? What is conservatism in politics ? 
What is liberalism ? Would a Tory to-day agree necessarily 
with a Tory of the time of Charles II.? Mention a few 
American Tories. Why in early American politics did the 
word Tory become a word of reproach ? 

17. The two original charters of Massachusetts are hung in frames 

in the office of the secretary of the Commonwealth, and may 
be seen by any visitor. What charters are these ? 

18. Did hiding the Connecticut charter from Andros save the rights 



Ch. Vi. NEW ENGLAND. 



123 



guaranteed the Connecticut people by this charter? Did 
Andros rule Connecticut? Could he have done it legally 
under Connecticut's charter? How came Connecticut to 
have a charter when she began without one ? 
'19. Does the story of the New Englanders thus far show that they 
were hard to govern or easy? What kind of government 
was resisted by them ? What kind was acquiesced in ? Did 
they improve with experience in managing their affairs? 
If so, in what respects? Mention a few humble beginnings 
in New England history that have since become great. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from Fiske's The Beginnings of New England: 

1. Three methods of nation-making. 

a. The Oriental, 9-1 r. 

b. The Roman, 12-20. 

c. The English, 20-32. 

2. The Separatists, 66-68. 

3. King James's vow to make them conform, 6S-71. 

4. The church at Scrooby, 71-73. 

5. Why the Pilgrims did not stay in Holland, 74, 75, 

6. The voyage of the Mayflower, 80-82. 

7. The Pilgrims and the Indians, 83-86. 

8. The founding of Massachusetts, 103, 104. 

9. How a stray pig shaped the cotrse of government, 105-108. 

10. The threefold danger of 1636. 

a. From King Charles I., 111-113. 

b. From Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, 1 14-120. 

c. From the Pequot War, 121, 122. 

11. The history of the Pequot War, 128-134. 

12. The Connecticut pioneers, 125-128. 

13. Troubles with the Quakers, 179-191. 

14. The regicides, 192-194. 

15. King Philip's War. 

a. Puritan treatment of the Indians, 199-206. 

b. Immediate causes of the war, 206-214. 

c. The beginning of hostilities, 214-221. 

d. The overthrow of the Narragansetts, 222-229. 

e. Hostilities still kept up, 230-236. 

f. Results of the war, 237-241. 

16. The tyranny of Andros, 267-272. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE MIDDLE ZONE. 1609-1702. 

57. The Founding of Maryland. It will be remem- 
bered that in the English plan of 1606 for colonizing 
North America, three parallel strips, or zones, were 
designated, beginning upon the Atlantic seacoast and 
extending westward nobody knew how far. We have 
seen how the great colony of Virginia was planted in 
the southern zone, and how the group of colonies called 
New England was planted in the northern zone. We 
The three havc followcd the story of Virginia down to j 
zones. 1677, after the end of Bacon's rebellion ; and 

we have followed the story of New England down to 
the new charter of Massachusetts, in 1692. We have 
now to see what was going on meanwhile in the middle 
zone, which comprised the country between the Poto- 
mac and Hudson rivers. We will begin with Mary- 
land, because it was founded in a different way from 
Virginia or Massachusetts, and it is now time for us to 
explain this new way of founding a colony. 

It will be remembered that the first English attempt 
at colonizing North America was made by a private 
individual. Sir Walter Raleigh, and it was too difficult 
and costly a task for him even with his great wealth. 
^, . . , The work was next undertaken by those twin 

The joint- , , ■' 

stock com- joint-stock partnerships called the London and 

Plymouth companies. We have seen how the 

London Company, after founding Virginia, was sup- 



§57. 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



125 



pressed, in 1624, by James I., because he was jealous of 
its growing power and wealth. On the other hand, the 
Plymouth Company languished till it died a natural 
death, in 1635 ; but the Company of Massachusetts Bay, 
founded in 1629, at once transferred itself to New Eng- 
land, and soon became a republic aggressive and annoy- 
ing to the English kings. 

Now, after Virginia had become known as a thriving 
community, the work of planting colonies came to be 
more popular than in the days of Raleigh's unfortunate 
ventures, and private individuals again took hold of it. 
It was easy for the king to reward the services of some 
favorite officer or courtier with a grant of land in Amer- 
ica ; such grants cost the king nothing. The first per- 
son who obtained -one was George Calvert, a Yorkshire 
gentleman whom James I. raised to the peerage as Lord 
Baltimore. After the 
fall of the London 
Company, of which 
he had been a mem- 
ber, Lord Baltimore 
wished to found a col- 
ony for himself. He 
was a Roman Catho- 
lic, and wished to se- 
cure for members of 
his church a place in 
America where they 
might be unmolested, 
for in England they 
were not well treated. 

First he tried Newfoundland, but the climate was too 
severe. Then, in 1629, he explored the country just 

^ After a portrait once in possession of Lord Bacon, now in the Earl of 

Verulam's gallery at Glastonbury. 




FIRST LORD BALTIMOKE.l 



126 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



north of the Potomac, and found it very attractive. He 
New way obtained a grant of it from Charles I., and in 
fcdon"^'- compliment to the queen, Henrietta Maria, it 
Maryland, ^^s Called Maryland.. This was a new kind of 
grant. Lord Baltimore was made " Lord Proprietary " 
of Maryland, and received privileges the most exten- 
sive ever conferred upon a 




MORfHE R N ^ 



:> "nfl L D Li 7 C 



ZONE 







British subject. He was 
required to pay to the king 
two Indian arrows yearly 
in token of homage, to- 
gether with a fifth part of 
whatever gold or silver 
might be mined in Mary- 
land ; but as no precious 
metals were produced in 
the colony, this rent 
amounted to nothing. At 
such an easy cost was 
Lord Baltimore made an 
■ almost independent sover- 
eign. He could coin money, 
and grant titles of nobility. He could create courts, 
and appoint the judges, and pardon criminals. He could 
summon an assembly of representatives, and such laws 
as it might pass did not need to be approved by the 
king, but were in force as soon as signed by Lord Balti- 
more. Finally, his office was hereditary in his family, 
so that the lord proprietary of Maryland was very much 
like a king. 

Just before this charter was issued, George Calvert 
died, SO that it was issued in the name of his son, 
Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Under his 
rule, the first settlement was made at St. Mary's, in 1634. 



SETTLEMENT OF THE MIDDLE 
NIES, 1614-64. 



5 57, 58- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



127 




In order to secure toleration for Catholics without 
offending the British government, it was neces- 
sary to pursue a policy of general toleration, so tiemlnf of 
that people of all creeds were drawn to Mary- '^^''y'^"'^- 
land, and the colony grew rapidly in population and 
wealth. 

58. Religious Quar- 
rels in Maryland. The 
people of Virginia were 
not pleased at seeing a 
region so near them 
granted to Lord Balti- 
more for the site of a 
rival colony. One Vir- 
ginia gentleman, Wil- 
liam Claiborne, who 
had settled on Kent 
Island, in Chesapeake 
Bay, resisted the Mary- 
land settlers with armed force. He was defeated and 
driven from Kent Island, in 1634, but he nursed his 
wrath. By 1645, a good many Puritans had come to 
Maryland, and wished to undermine the proprie- „ ., 

-' ' „ Puritans 

tary government and to molest the Catholics, and catho- 
Supported by the Puritans, Claiborne invaded 
Maryland, and for a moment overthrew the government ; 
but the loyal supporters of Lord Baltimore soon rallied 
and drove him out. Once more, in 1654, the Puritans 
and Claiborne tried their game, and were victorious in 
a battle fought near the site of Annapolis ; but Oliver 
Cromwell, after a patient examination of the case, de- 
'cided that the Calverts were entitled to govern Mary- 
land, and, in 1658, their government was restored. 

^ After an' engraving made in 1657, now in possession of the Maryland 
iJHistorical Society. 



SECOND LORD BALTIMORE. 1 



128 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



After this, the times were peaceful in Maryland till 
after 1676, when religious quarrels again became promi- 
nent. This time it was the Episcopal clergy who tried 
to oppress Catholics and Quakers. But they 

Episcopa- '^ '■ •! r 1 • 

lians and had not much success until alter the accession 
cat o ics. ^^ William and Mary, when new laws enacted 
by Parliament against Catholics annulled the charter of 
the Calverts, and their government suddenly fell to the 
ground. From 1692 to 17 14, Maryland was ruled by 
governors appointed by the crown. The seat of govern- 
ment was transferred from St. Mary's to Annapolis. 
Taxes were levied for the support of the Church of 

England, of which only a 
small part of the population 
were members. Catholics 
were forbidden to come to 
Maryland, and the public 
celebration of the mass was 
strictly prohibited. Such 
measures caused much dis- 
content, and created a strong 
party hostile to the British 
government. At length, in 
1 7 14, the fourth Lord Balti- 
more turned Protestant, and 
his proprietary rights were 
revived. Maryland remained 
a sort of hereditary monarchy until 1776, when the rule 
of the sixth Lord Baltimore was ended by the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

The method of creating a new colony by a grant to a 
lord proprietary was first adopted by the crown in the 
case of Maryland. A similar method was followed in 
all the colonies afterward founded south of New Eng- 




SETTLEMKNT OF MARYLAND. 



5§ 58, 59- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



129 



land, though there were variations in detail, and no 
other rulers came quite so near kingship as the Calverts. 
At first, the settlers of Maryland supported themselves, 
just like the settlers of Virginia, by raising tobacco on 
large plantations ; and in regard to negro slaves, poor 
whites, scarcity of towns, and absence of public free 
schools, the two colonies were almost exactly alike. But 
in the eighteenth century, the wheat crop came ., . , 

° -' . . ^ Life in the 

to be very large ; great quantities of wheat and Maryland 
flour were exported, and the city of Baltimore, '^° °"^* 
founded in 1729, soon became one of the most thriving 
Atlantic seaports. With the lapse of time, Maryland 
became more and more a commercial state, and her inter- 
ests, while partly like those of Virginia, were also partly 
ike those of Pennsylvania and New York. 

59. The Settlement of New Netherland by the 
Dutch. Before the Calverts had made their first settle- 




MANHATTAN ISLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.l 

lents on the Potomac, before the Mayflower had landed 
er Pilgrims at Plymouth, bold navigators and enterpris- 

1 From The Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 33. 



I30 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI 



ing merchants from Holland had taken 
possession of Manhattan Island, where 
the city of New York now stands. In 
the summer of 1609, the English sailor, 
Henry Hudson, then in the service 
of the Dutch East India Company, 
sailed along our coasts in his little 
ship, the Half Moon, entered the beau- 
tiful river that bears his name, and 
ascended it as far as the head of tide- 
water, at the site of Albany. A good 
many people believed that the conti- 
nent in that latitude was not much 
The Dutch wider than Central America, 
Hudson ^^^ Hudson was looking for 
Rive''- some strait through which he 

might sail into the Pacific Ocean. 
What he found was the river which 
gave most direct and ready access to 
the fur trade of the interior. The 
Indians had plenty of valuable furs 
which they were glad to trade for steel 
hatchets, jackknives, and cheap trin- 
kets. Dutch traders were, accordingly, 
soon drawn to Hudson's River, and 
made fortunes quickly out of the traffic 
in peltries. By 161 4, they had made 
a settlement on Manhattan Island, and 
the New Netherland Company was or- 
ganized. By 1623, the Dutch had es- 
tablished posts as far north as Albany, 
and as far south as Fort Nassau, near 
where Philadelphia now stands. They 
called the Hudson the North River, and 
the Delaware the South River, and the 



Bead of 



FOBTV! 

(Albany^ 






3^' 





H'^ 








m'^ 




W^ 


f^ *> 


Ms! 


r^ 1 '^ 


bN 


vV ( \ Si 


f t' J 


\ sm 


r g 


//M 


/^i^^#^^^ 


UM 


NEW 


Mp!^ 1664 







HENRY HUDSON'S 
RIVER. 



i59- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



131 



buntry between the two was known as New Netherland. 
In 1626, Peter Minuit, the governor of New Netherland, 
iought Manhattan Island from the Indians for about 
'venty-four dollars' worth of beads and ribbons. The 
ity beginning to grow up there was called New New Am- 
Lmsterdam, and, by 1664, it had a population ^terdam. 
1^ 1,500 souls. It was situated entirely south of Wall 
|treet, along which there ran a wooden palisaded wall. 
j All creeds were tolerated, and people came from all 
arts of Europe ; it is said that as many as eighteen lan- 
uages were spoken in New Amsterdam. 

At first, it was the fur trade that interested everybody, 
id little attention 
as paid to farming, 
t-ccordingly, the New 

etherland Company 

fered a prize to any 

iicmber who should 

ting fifty permanent 

ittlers into the col- 

ly. The prize was 

|i estate of sixteen 

iiles frontage on the palisades on wall street.i 

■ udson River, and of 

epth undetermined. Between New York and Albany 

lere would be room for about ten such manorial estates 

1 each side of the river. The proprietors could hold 

[tie courts of their own, and had some other privileges 
:e those of lords in Europe in the old times. The"pa- 
^iiese proprietors were called " patroons," and ^^°°'^^-" 
fayed a very important part in the history of the colony. 
j The Dutch in Holland were in many respects as free 
! people as the English, and in some respects more 
ilightened, but the colony of New Netherland had no 

1 From TAe Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 248- 




132 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. vuI 



representative assembly. The governor had a smalj 
council of from eight to twelve men to advise him, bul' 
there was no real check upon his authority, except that! 
people could complain of him to the government in Holl 
land, and beg to have him removed. The two governori:' 
who succeeded Minuit were men of weak head and bae 
character. The colony was grossly misgoverned, and; 
in 1643-45, was nearly ruined in a murderous war with 
the Algonquin tribes of the neighborhood. Fortunately 
the Dutch secured the firm friendship of the Iroquois,' 
who soon found that rich peltries would buy muskets 
and powder and ball to be used against other red men 
and against the French in Canada. j 

The famous Peter Stuyvesant, who was sent, in 1645,- 
Peter stuy- to govcm Ncw Nctherlaud, was an arbitrary 
vesant. rulcr, but houest and much more sensible 
than his predecessors. Under his rule, the wealth 

and population of the 
colony were more than 
doubled. Stuyvesant 

had rival colonizers to 
contend with. In 1638, 
a small party of Swedes 
had taken possession of 
the mouth of the Dela- 
ware River and made a 
settlement there which 
they called New Swe- 
den ; it was the begin- 
ning of the little state of 
Delaware. The Dutch 
looked upon these Swedes as intruders, and, in 1655, Stuy- 
vesant overcame them, and annexed their territory west 

1 From Tke Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 243. 




HETER STUYVESANT.l 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



133 



; the river to New Netherland. But it was soon the turn 
: the Dutch themselves to be swallowed up by a greater 
Dwer. England and Holland were commercial rivals ; 
le Hudson River was the most important military 
Dsition on the American coast, and the most convenient 
renue to the fur trade ; the English, therefore, had no 
ind to leave it in the hands of the Dutch. In 1664, 
.ing Charles H. fitted out a small fleet, under com- 
and of Richard Nichols, and sent it over to New Am- 
erdam, to demand the surrender of the colony. It 




THE STRAND, WHITEHALL STREET, NEW YORK, 1673.I 

as rather a cool demand to make, inasmuch as Eng- 
nd was at peace with Holland ; but honor and decency 
ere things about which Charles II. cared „ , , 

° Capture of 

-ry little. Governor Stuyvesant was taken New Am- 

1 IT 1 sterdam by 

y surprise. He had only 250 soldiers where- theEng- 
ith to defend the town against 1,000 English '^ " 
Jterans and the ninety guns of the fleet. Resistance 
as impossible, and so the town was surrendered, and 

1 After a view in Manual of City of New York, 1869. 



134 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. vn 

with it the province of New Netherland passed withoui 
a blow into the hands of the English. In 1673, in th( 
course of a war between England and Holland, thf 
Dutch got possession of the province again, but in 167/! 
it was finally surrendered to the English by treaty, 

60. Early English Rule in New York. New Nether 
land was given by King Charles to his brother James 
Duke of York, as lord proprietary ; and the name 
New Neth- the provincc, as well as that of the town oi 
comes New Manhattan Island, was changed to New York 
York. jt remained a proprietary colony until 1685 

when the Duke of York became king of England a 
James II. ; this made it a royal colony. Some of th 
people were glad to get rid of the Dutch rule becaus 
they hoped to have freely chosen representative assert 
blies, according to the custom in the English colonic! 
but James was not the man to satisfy them in thi 
respect ; he had no love for constitutional governmen 
It was not until 1683 that he gave his consent to th 
election of representatives in New York. After he ha 
become king, he prohibited elections, muzzled the prin 
ing press, and put New York, along with the New En| 
land colonies, under the arbitrary rule of Sir Edmun 
Andros. That military viceroy spent most of his tin- 
in Boston, and left a lieutenant-governor, Francis Nic; 
olson, to manage the affairs of New York. 

By this time, two antagonist parties had begun to gro 
up in New York. There were the aristocrats,' consistir 
Parties in ^^ ^^^ patroous, the officials appointed by tl 
New York, crown, and many of the rich merchants. Thf 
belonged to various churches, but among them we: 
many Episcopalians. Opposed to these was the popul; 
party, composed of small traders, artisans, and sailors : 
the city, and of small farmers in the country. Most '■ 



§6o. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I35 

these people belonged to Independent or Congregational 
;churches, either Dutch, French, or English. 
I King James was not only a Roman Catholic himself, 
but believed in compelling other people to become Ro- 
man Catholics. The people of New York saw that he 
persecuted Presbyterians in Scotland, and they overthrow 
were afraid of being persecuted themselves. In ^^^^^ ^^^ 
the spring of 1689, when it became known in «^°s- 
America that King James had been dethroned and had 
fled to France, the people of Boston at once deposed Sir 
Edmund Andros and threw him into prison. Nicholson 
remained in command at New York, and the aristocratic 
oarty prudently wished him to stay until a new governor 
jhould be appointed by the new king, William III. 

A great war between France and England was break- 
ing out, and it was correctly believed that Louis XIV. 
jntended to take New York from the English. Nichol- 
jion was suspected of being a Catholic, and the popular 
;)arty hated Episcopalians almost as bitterly as they 
.lated Catholics. An absurd suspicion arose that the 
aristocratic party intended to betray New York into the 
^ands of the French. 
The leader of the popular party was a German named 

acob Leisler. He was a well-to-do merchant r^^^^ 

nd a deacon in the Dutch Reformed church, Leisier. 

/ith a fierce hatred for Catholics and Episcopalians. 

,acob Milborne, ^^ 

n Englishman, ^^/V/ 

/ho married \.^_^^<^C<y / 

i^eisler's daugh- 

-r, was one of 

is chief SUD- leisler's autograph.i 

orters. In order to save the city from the supposed 

1 From Winsor's America, iii. 411. 




136 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Ch. VILJ 

I 

traitors, Leisler called out the militia, captured the fort, 
and drove Nicholson from the city. Afterward, Leisler, 
at the head of his troops, dispersed the council and set^ 
up a government of his own. The aristocratic party 
opposed these irregular proceedings, and two years ot 
contention followed. Leisler grew more and more arbi- 
trary ; he imprisoned citizens of the opposite party and 
seized upon their property. By degrees his own adher- 
ents began to turn against him, while various complaints 
found their way to the ears of King William. In 1691, 
the king sent over a new governor, named Henry Slough- 
ter, with his lieutenant, Richard Ingoldsby, and a small 
force of troops. The ship which carried the governor 
was blown out of its course ; Ingoldsby, with the rest of 
the fleet, arrived in New York harbor before him, and 
summoned Leisler to surrender the city. Leisler refused 
to do so until Ingoldsby should show the written com- 
mission under which he was acting. But this could not 
be done because the paper was in the governor's ship. 
Ingoldsby landed his troops and took possession of the 
City Hall. After six weeks of bullying and threatening, 
Leisler attacked him there and killed some of the king's 
troops. The next day, Governor Sloughter arrived upon 
the scene, and Leisler, deserted by his own men, was 
taken prisoner. After a brief trial, he and his son-in-law, 
Milborne, were found guilty of treason and hanged. This 
was an act of ill judged severity. The victims were re- 
garded as martyrs by the popular party, and politica] 
strife in New York was for a long time greatly embit- 
tered by this dismal tragedy. 

61. Lord Bellomont and the Pirates. From this time 
forth. New York had a representative assembly and was 
governed in a constitutional manner. The governor at 
the end of the century was Lord Bellomont, an excelleni 



§§6i,62. THE MIDDLE ZONE. 1 37 

man, whose administration has ever since been remem- 
bered for his efforts to suppress piracy. With the 
growth of ocean traffic since the discovery of America, 
the seas were covered with merchant ships carrying such 
valuable cargoes as to afford a great temptation to sea 
robbers. The depredations and cruelties of the pirates 
had become unendurable ; and in order to begin sup- 
pressing them, Lord Bellomont fitted out a swift and 
powerful war-ship and put it under command of ^ 

•' . -^ ^ Captain 

' William Kidd, a very able Scotch merchant Kidd, the 
and navigator, then living in New York. So ^"^^ ^' 
f Captain Kidd started to put down the pirates, but after 
;he had been more than a year at sea, it was learned that 
J he had changed his mind and become a pirate himself. 
I In 1699, he was so rash as to go ashore at Boston, where 
[he was at once arrested and sent to London. He was 
i hanged in 170 1. At one time, he seems to have hidden 
some money by bringing it on Gardiner's Island, and for 
[a hundred years afterward people along the coasts of 
Long Island Sound used now and then to hunt for 
" Kidd's buried treasures." 

62. The Beginnings of New Jersey. The province 
of New Netherland comprised (i) the valley of the Hud- 
son from the mouth of that river as far up as Albany ; 
(2) the country lying between the Hudson and Delaware 
rivers, or, as they were commonly called, the North and 
'South rivers. In 1664, after the English conquest of 
New Netherland, the Duke of York sold out the southern 
'portion of it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret to 
hold as lords proprietary. Carteret had won some dis- 
tinction as governor of the little island of Jersey _, . . 

^ -^ _ -' Beginnings 

in the English Channel, and in honor of him, of New 
the new province came to be called New Jer- 
sey. Carteret's settlements were made in the east, about 



138 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



ch. vn. 



Newark, while Berkeley's share in the territory lay to the 
southwest, where Burlington and Trenton stand. After 
a few years, Berkeley sold his share to a party of Quakers, 
and the two provinces of East and West Jersey were 
organized. The proprietary government was much dis- 
liked by the settlers, and, in 1702, the two Jerseys were 
united into one province and placed under the direct rule 
of the crown. 

63. The Pounding of Pennsylvania. The settlement 
of West Jersey by Quakers led to the founding of Penn 




WILLIAM PENN.l 

sylvania. William Penn, the famous Quaker, was the son 
of a distinguished admiral, and both his father and himself 
were always on terms of peculiar friendship and intimacy 
with the royal family. Penn became interested in the 

1 At the age of twenty-two. From a portrait painted in 1666, given to 
the Pennsylvania Historical Society in 1833 ^y Granville Penn. 



I 63- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



139 



emigration of Quakers to New Jersey, and presently took 
it into his head to found a Quaker colony according to his 
pwn ideas. He inherited the claim to a debt of ;^i6,ooo 
due from the crown to his father ; and King Charles 
{[I., who never had much ready money for paying his 
debts, was glad to settle this account by a grant of wild 
and in America. Accordingly, in 1681, Penn „ . . 

'^ ■' Beginnings 

obtained a grant of 40,000 square miles of ter- of Penn- 
ritory lying west of the Delaware River. In ^^ ^^"'^' 
commemoration of Penn's father, the king gave to this 
Drincely domain the^name Pennsylvania, or "Penn's 
vVoodland." The charter 
nade William Penn lord 
)roprietary of Pennsyl- 
vania. It was drawn up 
n imitation of Lord Bal- 
imore's charter, but did 
lot confer quite such ex- 
ensive powers. The prin- 
ipal differences were 
wo : (i) Laws passed by 
he assembly of Maryland 
i^ere valid as soon as ap- 
)roved by Lord Baltimore, 
nd did not even need to 
le seen by the king or 
lis privy council ; but the 
olonial enactments of 

'ennsylvania were required to be sent to England for 
he royal approval. (2) In the Maryland charter the 
ight of the British government to impose taxes within 
he limits of the province was expressly denied ; in the 
'ennsylvania charter it was expressly affirmed. 

1 Reduced from a facsimile in Smith and Watson's American Historical 
nd Literary Curiosities. 




AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURE TO PENN'S 
FRAME OF GOVERNMENT.! 



I 



I40 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VIL 

In 1682, Penn came over to America; a good many 
of his settlers had come already. Soon after his arrival, 
Penn's a legislative assembly was chosen, and a consti- 
govem^-°^ tution, or " frame of government," was adopted, 
ment." j^ ^vas more democratic than that of Maryland. 
In the older colony, nearly all the magistrates were 
appointed by Lord Baltimore ; in Pennsylvania nearly all 
were elected by the people. Penn's colony was founded 
on very liberal principles for those times. No one could 
be molested for his opinions on matters of religion. The 
laws were extremely humane, and land was offered to 
immigrants on very easy terms. 

In 1683, Penn laid out a city which he called Philadel- 
phia, or " Brotherly Love," after a Greek city 
of Phiia- in Asia Minor, mentioned in the New Testa- 
^ ^ ^^' ment. It was laid out in large squares, and the 
first streets were named from trees that grew on the 
spot, — Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce, Pine, etc. The first 
houses were of wood, but, by 1690, they were usually 
^„__i _ aE i i- .^>-^.....->.»^--^v.>-.±rn:=d^^ bullt of brick or 

2,000 inhabit- 
ants, and the 
population of the colony was nearly 8,000, of whom not 
more than half were English ; the rest were chiefly Ger- 

1 Soon after his arrival in America, Penn made a treaty with the Dela- 
ware Indians under an elm-tree at a place called Shackamaxon, on the 
bank of the Delaware River. It was customary on such occasions for 
the parties making the treaty to exchange belts of wampum. The wam- 
pum belt shown above is said to have been given to William Penn by the 
Indians at Shackamaxon. It consists of eighteen strings of black and 
white beads. The figures in the centre are supposed to represent an 
Indian and a European with hands joined in friendship. It was presented 
by one of Penn's descendants to the Pennsylvania Historical Society, in 
whose collections it may now be seen. 



penn's WAMPUM.l 



63- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



141 



mans and Scotch-Irish, with a considerable number of 
Swedes, Welsh, and French. It was not long before 
Pennsylvania had outgrown all the other colonies except 
Massachusetts and Virginia. 




PENN S SLATE-ROOF HOUSE. i 



Of all the colonies, this was the only one that had no 
seacoast, and as Penn wanted free access to „ 

Penn 

ithe ocean, he secured from the Duke of York obtains 
the proprietorship of Delaware, which, ever 
since its conquest by Stuyvesant, had formed a part of 
,New Netherland. Until the United States became inde- 
.pendent, Pennsylvania and Delaware continued under the 
same proprietary government, though, after 1702, they 
were distinct provinces, each with its own legislature. 

^ William Penn lived in this house in 1699-1701. It stood on Second 
Street, between Chestnut and Walnut, at the southeast corner of Norris's 
Alley. Here his son, John Penn, was born. The house was pulled down 
in 1868. 



142 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



The proprietor- 
ship of Pennsyl- 
vania was heredi- 
tary in the Penn 
family, as that of 
Maryland was he- 
reditary with the 
Calverts. Quar- 
rels sometimes 
arose between the 
two neighbors con- 
cerning the boun- 
dary line between 
them. In 1763-67, 

the line was final- 
Mason and ly estab- 
Dixon's line. Hshed by 

two surveyors, 
Charles Mason 
and Jeremiah Dix- 
on ; and long after- 
ward, when negro 

slavery had been ^^^ middle colonies, 1690. 

abolished in the 

northern states, "Mason and Dixon's line" became fa- 
mous as the dividing line between free soil and slave soiL 




topics and questions. 
57. The Founding of Maryland. 

1. The three zones again. 

2. The planting of colonies thus far. 

3. A new way of founding colonies. 

4. Something about the first Lord Baltimore. 

5. The extraordinary privileges granted Lord Baltimore. 

6. The second Lord Baltimore. 

7. Toleration in Maryland. 



:h. VII. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I43 

58. Religious Quarrels in Maryland. 

1. Virginia's attitude toward Maryland. 

2. Claiborne's war against Maryland. 

3. Cromwell's decision about the rightful rulers. 

4. Who began to oppress the Catholics after 1676 ? 

5. What measures of oppression were adopted .'' 

6. What was the outcome of such measures .-* 

7. Tell about the business of the colony. 

,•9. The Settlement of New Netherland by the Dutch. 

1. When and by whom was the Hudson River discov- 

ered "} 

2. What was Hudson looking for ? 

3. How did a Dutch trade spring up? 

4. What early Dutch settlements were made? 

5. What country was called New Netherland ? 

6. Tell about New Amsterr'am. 

7. Tell about the estates Oi ihe patroons, and how there came 

to be such estates. 

8. Describe the government pf New Netherland. 

9. What did the Dutch have to do with the Indians ? 
ID. Tell about Stuyvesant and the Swedes. 

II, How did the English come into possession of New Nether- 
land finally ? 
60. Early English Rule in New York. 

1. How came New Netherland to be called New York? 

2. How did it become a royal colony ? 

3. Why were some people glad to get rid of Dutch rule ? 

4. What harsh measures did James adopt when he' became 

king? 

5. What opposing parties grew up in New York ? 

6. What events in New York followed the overthrow of King 

James ? 

7. What was the suspicion of the popular party ? 

8. What measures did the popular party under Leisler adopt 

to save the city ? 

9. Show how Leisler provoked opposition to himself. 

10. Tell how the new governor overthrew Leisler. 

11. What was the fate of Leisler ? 

5i. Lord Bellomont and the Pirates. 

1. What led to the prevalence of piracy? 

2. What was Captain Kidd commissioned to do ? 



144 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VTI. 

3. What did he really do ? 

4. Explain his buried treasures. 
62. The Beginnings of New Jersey. 

r. What did New Netherland comprise ? 

2. What part did the Duke of York sell, and to whom? ; 

3. How came the new province to receive its name ? : 

4. How came there to be two Jerseys? 

5. When and why were they united ? 
6^. The Founding of Pennsylvania. 

1. Who was William Penn ? 

2. How came Penn to be a landowner in America? 

3. What was his domain ? 

4. In what two respects did Penn have less power than Lord 

Baltimore ? 

5. How was Penn's government more democratic than that of 

Maryland ? 

6. What liberal policy did Penn's government adopt ? 

7. Give an account of early Philadelphia, speaking (a) of its 

name, {^) of its plan, (c) of its streets, and (d) of its 
population and growth. 

8. How did Penn secure a reach of seacoast? 

9. What tie united Pennsylvania and Delaware ? 

10. What was the object of " Mason and Dixon's line"? 

suggestive questions and directions. 

1. What is a joint-stock company or partnership? What joint- 

stock companies engaged in colonizing America? How did 
they make money, or expect to make it ? 

2. Show how grants of land in America by English sovereigns 

cost them nothing. What change of view about the owner- 
ship of public lands by English sovereigns has taken place 
since colonial times ? 

3. Why have so many people come to America to live, and so few 

left it to live elsewhere ? 

4. Mention some colony that was early tolerant from principle, 

some colony tolerant for self-protection, and some colony 
forced to become tolerant by a change in public opinion. 

5. What three religious sects studiously refrained from persecu- 

tion in colonial times ? 

6. What is a state church ? Show how the Church of England is 

a state church. What burden does such a church lay upon 



H. VII. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I45 

the public ? Mention some colony that has had experience 
with such a church. What is the objection to levying taxes 
to support such a church ? Is there any greater objection to 
taxing one for a church he does not believe in than in taxing 
him for a road he does not beheve in ? Reason. 

7. Why is the word " New " used in connection with the names of 

so fnany American places, as New York, New Jersey, etc. ? 

8. Why was Manhattan Island so cheap in 1626.'' (See pages 130, 

131.) Why is it so dear to-day ? 

9. What is meant by saying that property or position is hereditary ? 

In what countries is the right to govern hereditary? In 
what countries is this hereditary right denied ? What right 
is opposed to it ? Is there any right hereditary in the United 
States to-day } 

0. What are the five degrees of British nobility? Has there ever 

been a colonial nobility ? What has the Constitution of the 
United States to say about titles of nobility? 

1. What three great cities have grown up in the middle zone? 

Tell when each was founded, and by whom. Give some rea- 
son why each has grown so rapidly. 

2. Trace Penn's seacoast on the map. Trace " Mason and 

Dixon's line." Was that line long enough really to separate 
all the slave soil from the free ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Tom Cooke's Virginia, in the series of "American Common 
wealths : " 

1. H( w Lord Baltimore was treated in Virginia, 176, 177. 

2. Claiborne's claim to Maryland, 178, 179. 

3. His persistent struggle for Maryland, 180, 181. 

4. The battle of the Severn, 208-216. 

In much that relates to the fur-bearing animals, to the importance 
if the fur trade, to the debasing brandy traffic, and to the wild life 
if diose who went among the Indians to buy and sell, Parkman's 
;raphic descriptions in his Old Regime in Canada hold as good of 
he Dutch and the English as of the French. 

1. The French fur trade, 302-309. 

2. The cotireurs de bois, or bush-rangers, 309-3 1 5. 

3. The brandy traffic, 322-328. 

In his yesuits in N^orih Avierica, Parkman gives a most readable 
iccount of the Indians east of the Mississippi, particularly of their 



146 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VIL 

ablest tribes, the Indians of New York. Interesting side glimpses 
are given in the same work of the old Dutch life and spirit, espe- 
cially in the chapter on the thrilling experiences of a devoted i 
French missionary among the Mohawks. 

1. The dreaded Iroquois, liii-lxvi. 

2. How the Dutch suppHed the Indians with firearms, 211, 212. 

3. The romantic story of Isaac Jogues, 213-238, 296-305. 

4. The Dutch settlement at Fort Orange (Albany), 229, 230. 

5. How the Dutch befriended Jogues, 231-234. 

6. A glimpse of old Manhattan, 235, 236. 

In the opening chapters of his Conspiracy of Pojitiac, Parkman 
again, in fresh and varied language, describes the Indians east of 
the Mississippi, and especially the fierce Iroquois, sharply contrast- 
ing their treatment by the French with their treatment by the 
English, and pointing out the far-reaching consequences of these 
differences of policy. 

1. The peculiar totems of the Iroquois, i. 4, 5, 10. 

2. Strange Iroquois legends, i. 12-15. 

3. Dwellings and daily life of the Iroquois, i. 16-20. ' 

4. The terrible conquests of the Iroquois, i. 22-27. 

5. The widely-spread Algonquins, i. 28-39. 

6. The kind of man the wild Indian really is, i. 39-45. 

7. French and English settlers contrasted, i. 46-64. 

8. French and English treatment of the Indians contrasted 

i. 65-80. 

9. The Quakers and the Indians, i. 80-83. 

10. The Quakers' walking purchase, i. 84-86. 

11. English fur traders, i. 71, 72, 79, 153-160, 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE FAR SOUTH. 1660-1752, 

64. The Carolinas. After his restoration to the throne, 
1 1660, Charles II. had several friends whom he wished 
reward for important services. Chief among these 
rere George Monk, Duke of Albemarle, - and Edward 
lyde, Earl of Clarendon. To these and six other gentle- 
len, the king, in 1663, granted the territory between 
''irginia and Florida. The charter created a proprietary 
Drm of government somewhat similar to that of Mary- 
md, except that the proprietorship was vested in a com- 
any of eight persons instead of in a single person, 
'he country had been visited a hundred years before by 
be unfortunate Jean Ribault, and had thus come to be 
ailed Carolina, after Charles IX., of France ; the name 
erved equally well now that another King Charles was 
3 be commemorated. An elaborate constitution for the 
roposed colony was drawn up by the great philosopher, 
ohn Locke, but it was never put into practice. 

There was no intention of making two distinct colo- 
ies, but the earliest settlements were made at points so 
ir apart, and under such different circumstances, that 
istinct governments grew up naturally. The first per- 
lanent settlements in North Carolina were north of Al- 
emarle Sound and near the Virginia border ; The two 
le first permanent settlements in South Caro- c^'"°i'""- 
na were about Charleston. Sometimes the two colonies 
ad separate governors, sometimes one governor ruled 



148 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA, 



Ch. viil 



them both. The lords proprietary seemed to have cared 
little for the colonies except as sources of income, and 

their rule was very , 
unpopular. For i 
many years there 
were frequent 
complaints and 
disorders. At 

length, in 1729, 
the lords proprie- 
tary turned over 
the government to 
the crown, and the 
two Carolinas be- 
came distinct and 
separate royal 
provinces. 

65. The Begin- 
nings of North 
Carolina. Among 
the people who 
first pressed 

through the wil- 
derness from Vir- 
ginia and made 
the beginnings of North Carolina, there were many 
rough characters for whom life in Virginia was not wild 
enough. There were also white freedmen who could 
not hope to rise to social equality with the Virginia 
planters ; these people obtained small farms in North 
Carolina, with negro slaves to cultivate them. There 
were also Quakers and other Dissenters who fled froir 
Virginia to escape persecution. In 1707, there came £ 
large company of Huguenots driven from France ; and 




SETTLEMENTS IN THE FAR SOUTH. 



5 65,66. THE FAR SOUTH. I49 

n 1709, there came a still greater number of Germans 
rom the Palatinate, led by the Baron de Graffenried. 
ie was a native of Bern, in Switzerland, and the first 
own founded by his company was called New Bern. 

North Carolina was then inhabited by a powerful tribe 
if Iroquois Indians called Tuscaroras. These red men 
id not relish the sight of such a steadily increasing 
hrong of white people coming to take possession of 
heir forests. So they made war upon the The Tus- 
ettlers, and began it, after their well-known ^^^°'^^ ^^^''" 
ashion, by capturing John Lawson, the surveyor general 
f the colony, and burning him to death. Then they 
ttacked the farms of the white men and massacred 
lany families. This was in 171 1. After two dreadful 
ears of war, the Tuscaroras were completely put down ; 
he remnant of the tribe, in 171 5, migrated to central 
^ew York and joined the league of their kinsmen in the 
ilohawk Valley. 

After 1730, great numbers of Scotch-Irish came to 
'lorth Carolina and settled chiefly in the western coun- 
ies ; and, after 1745, there came many Scotch High- 
mders. Population grew so fast that by the time of 
he Revolution, North Carolina ranked fourth among 
he thirteen colonies. It was almost entirely a popula- 
ion of small farmers. Much tobacco was raised, and 
he splendid forests of yellow pine yielded lumber, tar, 
nd turpentine. 

66. The Beginnings of South Carolina, The first 
ettlers of South Carolina, in 1670, were Englishmen 
ent out by the lords proprietary. After 1685, Hugue- 
lots came from France in large numbers. Some years 
ater came Germans, then a great many Scotch-Irish, 
nd then a few Scotch Highlanders. The races inhabit- 
ng the two Carolinas are, therefore, pretty much the 



ISO 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIIL 



same, though mingled in different proportions. But 
society was very different in the two. The South Caro- 
Hna planters grew rich by cultivating rice and indigo on 
large estates. All labor was performed by negro slaves, 
who were brought over from Africa in such numbers 

that before the Revolu- 
tion there were at least 
twice as many black men 
as white men in the col- 
ony. The work on the 
rice and indigo planta- 
tions was directed by 
overseers. As a rule, the 
rich planters had com^; 
fortable and handsome; 
houses in Charleston, and, 
life in that town, with 
its theatre, balls, and din^ 
ner parties, was quite gay 
67. The Beginnings oJ 
Georgia. The rapid growttj 
of the Carolinas was not regarded with favor by the Span| 
iards in Florida. They kept stirring up the Indians t(j 
warfare, until, in 171 5, a great force of Yemassees, Chero 
kees, and Catawbas, numbering nearly 7,000 warriors 
invaded South Carolina. After they had slaughterec 
four or five hundred settlers, they were route( 
Ogie^-^ by Governor Craven in an obstinate battle, an( 

theTeuie-'^ driven from the province. But they kept u] 
mentof their depredations on the frontier. At length 

Georgia. ^ 

a brave English soldier, James Oglethorpe 
conceived the idea of planting a colony which shouL 
serve as a strong military outpost against the Spaniard, 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 362. 




OGLETHORPE.l 



5 67. 



THE PAR SOUTH. 



151 



'ind Indians. In those days it was customary to put in- 
solvent debtors into prison, where they were liable to 
spend a great part of their lives. Oglethorpe's plan was 
ho release these unfortunate people and take them to 
[America. In 1732, he obtained from George II. a grant 
)f land "in trust for the poor." It was named Georgia, 
iifter the king. 

Oglethorpe came over in 1733, and founded the town 
l)f Savannah. His company of English settlers was 
'einforced by Germans and Scotch Highlanders. The 




SAVANNAH IN I74I.I 

xmtry near the coast was soon dotted with planta- 
ons of rice and indigo, and there was a brisk trade in 
mber. In 1739, war broke out between Spain and 
ngland, and presently Oglethorpe invaded Florida and 
.id siege to St. Augustine, but failed to take TheSpan- 
'at town. In 1742, the Spaniards invaded >^^^^■■• 
'eorgia and were totally defeated in a battle at Fred- 
• ica. The next year, Oglethorpe again laid siege to St. 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 368. 



1 



152 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VIII.. 

Augustine ; and, although he did not take it, the Span- 
iards did not again resume the offensive. Soon after-: 
ward, Oglethorpe returned to England. The government 
of the trustees was unpopular, partly because they undeM 
took to prohibit the importation of rum and of negro 
slaves. In 1752, the province was surrendered to the 
crown, and remained under a royal governor until the 
Revolution. 

We have now seen how thirteen English colonies came 
to be planted in North America. We had before seen 
how the French, under Samuel de Champlain, had 
founded a colony upon the river St. Lawrence. We 
have next to describe the further progress of the French, 
and see how they struggled with the English for suprem 
acy, and how, at length, the English colonists, aided b) 
troops from England, were completely victorious, anc 
took away from France all her possessions in America. 

topics and questions. 

64. The Carolinas. 

1. By whom was Carolina granted, and to whom? 

2. What reason led to the grant? 

3. How came the territory to receive its name? 

4. Tell how two colonies sprang up when one was intended. 

5. When did the Carolinas become royal provinces, and why! 

65. The Beginnings of North Carolina. 

1. What sorts of people early made their homes in Nort 

Carolina? 

2. What Indians were disturbed by their coming, and why? 

3. What was the result of the war that ensued? 

4. What settlers flowed in after this war? 

5. Tell about the farms and industries of the settlers. 

66. The Beginnings of South Carolina. 

1. The classes of early settlers. 

2. How they compared with those of North Carolina. 

3. How they became well-to-do. 

4. The effect of their wealth on their mode of living. 



Ch. VIII. THE FAR SOUTH. I 53 

67. The Beginnings of Georgia. 

1. How the Florida Spaniards viewed the growth of the Caro 

linas. 

2. The means they took to check this growth, 

3. The result of the war. 

4. Oglethorpe's plan of defense against the Spaniards and 
Indians. 

5. His grant and the name given to it. 

6. The founding of Savannah. 

7. How Georgia at length fell to the crown. 

suggestive questions and directions. 

Why is Ribault described in the text as unfortunate ? 

What bodies of people were known as Dissenters, and why? 
Why is the name still used in England, but not in the United 
States.? 

Who were the Huguenots? Why did many of them come to 
this country ? Why did they not settle in those regions of 
the new world claimed by France ? 

Where and what was the Palatinate ? Why did Germans come 
over from the Palatinate ? 

Where was the home of the Scotch-Irish ? What made them 
uncomfortable at home and ready to emigrate ? 

In general, what conditions in the old world made so many 
people dissatisfied there, and what conditions in the new- 
world drevT so many to its shores ? 

What were some of Oglethorpe's high aims? What is an insol- 
vent debtor? Show how he fares better to-day than two 
centuries ago. What two things did Oglethorpe seek to do 
through his use of such debtors ? Why was his opposition 
to the importation of rum and slaves unpopular ? 

What colonies were granted charters when they were founded ? 
What were made proprietary? What were organized as 
royal provinces ? What was the characteristic thing in each 
of these three kinds of government? 
'. Make out a table of the thirteen colonies in accordance with the 
following plan : 



154 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. viil 



COLONIES. 


FIRST SETTLED 
WHEN? 


WHERE ? 


BY WHOM? 


ORIGINAL GOVERN- 
MENT. 










1 



10. To what country or countries do you trace your ancestr} ? 

What is meant by pride of birth or pride of family? Why 
do people like to claim relationship with, or descent from, 
the illustrious ? 

11. In what sense are all Americans foreigners? What is it for 

the foreigner to become Americanized ? What are the signs 
that the process is complete ? What are some of the means 
of hastening tlie process? Ought the foreigner to learn 
English? Ought he to become a citizen? What old-world 
tilings ought he to abandon ? What old-world things is it 
proper for him to cling to ? 

12. What nationalities do not assimilate with the American? Is it I 

good policy to keep out of this country any civilization in- 
ferior to ours, and that shows no signs of becoming like 
ours ? Ought immigration to be discouraged ? Ought it to 
be restricted ? 



TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, vol. i. : 

1. French claims on the American continent, 20-25. 

2. An estimate of the thirteen British colonies : 

a. Massachusetts the type of the New England colonies, 

26-28. 

b. Virginia in contrast with Massachusetts, 29-31. 

c. Pennsylvania different from both, 31, 32. 

d. New York with its Dutch coloring, 32, 33. 

e. The remaining colonies, 33. 

f. Their mutual jealousies and internal disputes, 33-35. 

3. The combatants in the coming struggle : 

a. The England of the eighteenth century, 5-9. 

b. The France of Louis XV., 9-16. 



CHAPTER IX. 

OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 1689-1763. 

I "68. The Mississippi Valley Claimed for France by 
La Salle. Interest in the fur trade combined with mis- 
sionary zeal to draw the French explorers farther and 
"arther into the interior of the North American conti- 
nent. In Champlain's time, a Jesuit mission had already 
oeen established among the Huron Indians, and it was 
destroyed, in 1649, by the terrible Iroquois. Before 1670, 
;;he French were exploring Wisconsin, and had prench ex- 
■nade settlements at Sault Sainte Marie, at the v^?''^P ^^<^ 

mission- 

Mitrance of Lake Superior, and at Saint Esprit, aries in the 
m the southern shore of that lake. If you look 
it a map of Wisconsin and its neighbor states, you will 
lotice many French names, such as Eau Claire, Lac Qui 
'arle, Prairie du Chien, and others, preserving the recol- 
ection of the time when no white men but Frenchmen 
lad set foot in that part of the country. 

In 1673, Marquette and Joliet discovered the northern 
•art of the Mississippi, and descended that ^. 

^^ ' Discovery 

Teat river in boats about as far as the mouth of the Mis- 
f the Arkansas. Six years afterward, the 
.ork of exploring the Mississippi valley was taken up 
y Robert de La Salle, one of the bravest and most sa- 
acious explorers that ever lived. He had already made 
n expedition, in 1669, in which he discovered the Ohio 
nd Illinois rivers. In 1679, he launched in the Niagara 
Liver the first vessel ever seen on the Great Lakes, 



156 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



the Griffin, of forty-five tons burthen. He passed through 
^ ^ „ the lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and senti 

. La Salle , . . I 

and the back the vessel for further supplies, while hej 
pushed on to the Illinois, and built a small fortj 
there, which soon received the name of Crevecoeur, ori 
" Heartbreak." The Griffin was never heard from, and 
in March, 1680, La Salle started, with four Frenchmen 




LM^ 




LA SALLE.- 



and one Indian guide, and they made their way, parti; 
by canoes, partly on foot, through a thousand miles 
tangled wilderness to Montreal. After obtaining fresi 
supplies, he made his way back to the Illinois Rivei 

1 This follows a design given in Gravier, which is said to be based o 
an engraving preserved in the Bibliotheque de Rouen. 



68. 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



eeting strange adventures on the way. Part of the 
Harrison left in Fort Crevecoeur had mutinied and pulled 
he fort to pieces ; reinforced by other knaves, they 
ruised on Lake Ontario in canoes, in the hope of kill- 




NORTHERN PART OF NEW FRANCE. 



g La Salle and plundering his party, but La Salle de- 
lated them and sent them in chains to the governor of 
'anada for punishment. The remainder of the garrison 
Crevecoeur, with their noble young leader, Henri de 
onty, whom La Salle had left in charge, took refuge 
pong the Illinois tribe of Indians ; in the course of the 
fimmer, the great village of the Illinois was destroyed 
y the Iroquois, and the little band of Frenchmen re- 
located to Green Bay on Lake Michigan. So when La 
:ille reached the Illinois country, he found his friends 
1 gone. He spent the winter making alliances with the 
cstern tribes, and in the next summer, after finding 
is friend Tonty on Lake Michigan, the two returned in 
ij,noes to Montreal to obtain fresh resources. 
!' La Salle suffered from want of money, and it was very 
scouraging that a ship from France, bringing many 



158 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. D 



La Salle's 
third at- 
tempt to 
explore the 
Missis- 
sippi. 



thousand dollars for his use, should have been wrecke( 
and all the money lost. On his second return to Mon 
treal without achieving anything, ill disposed people ridi; 
culed him. But the evil fates had grown tired of fighlj 
ing against such a man, and his third attemp 
was crowned with success. With a fleet O' 
canoes he ascended lakes Erie, Huron, anc 
Michigan, and the Chicago River, then marchec 
through .the woods across the portage, oi 
carrying place, from the Chicago to the Illinois ; ther 
launched the canoes again on the latter river, anc ; 

thence, coming out : 
upon the Missis 
sippi, glided down 
to its mouth. Or 
the 9th of April 
1682, the banner 
of France waS' 
planted there, anci 
La Salle took pos- 
session of the great 
river and its country in the name of Louis XIV., King 
of France, after whom he called the country Louisiana. 
That name Louisiana is now restricted to the state 
through which the Mississippi River in its lowest portion 
flows into the Gulf of Mexico. When first given by La 
Salle it had a much wider meaning. The French main- 
tained that to discover a river establishes a claim to all 
the territory drained by that river and by its tributaries. 
Now, nearly all the rain that falls in the United States, 
from the crest of the Alleghanies all the way to the crest 
of the Rocky Mountains (except what runs into the Great; 
Lakes), is drained off through the Mississippi River. La 
Salle knew nothing about the regions west of that river, 




NEW FRANCE. 



§§68,69. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 159 

but the name Louisiana covered the country from the 
Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. 

The water that runs into the Great Lakes is drained 
off through the St. Lawrence, of which the French had 
already taken possession. As Champlain was the founder 
of New France with his Canadian colony, so La Salle 
gave to New France its widest extension with his acqui- 
sition of Louisiana. Compared with this enormous 
stretch of territory, the strip of English colonies along 
the Atlantic coast would seem very narrow. 

But La Salle well knew that to make other nations 
respect the claims of discoverers, it is necessary for the 
discoverers to take armed possession of the ter- 
ritory claimed. So he returned to France, and take armed 
fitted out an expedition to come by sea and ofLouisi*" 
found a colony at the mouth of the Missis- ^"^' 
sippi. But his pilots missed the entrance to the river 
,and landed four hundred miles to the west of it, at Mata- 
gorda Bay. After two years of misery, the indomitable 
La Salle started on foot in the hope of making his way 
to Canada and finding relief, but he had scarcely set 
out with this forlorn hope when two or three mutinous 
wretches of his party skulked in ambush and shot him 
dead. 

' 69. The Outbreak of "War between Prance and Eng- 
land. Not content with possessing the broad valleys of 
:he St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, the French now 
,:herished an intention of conquering the valley of the 
Hudson, thus cutting off the English from any approach 
iio the Great Lakes, and from any share in the rich fur 
crade of the northwestern forests. The breaking out of 
war in Europe seemed to afford them an opportunity 
,"or doing this. 
I The power of France under Louis XIV. was becom- 




l60 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX.' 

I 
I 

ing so great as to alarm the rest of Europe, and Williaml 
of Orange, Stadholder^.of the Netherlands, was at the! 
William of head of an armed league for the purpose of re-j 
Orange. sisting the French. James II., king of Eng-I 
land, was uncle to William of Orange, and also his father 
in-law, for William had married James's eldest daughter, 
Mary. In the winter of 1688-89, there was a Revolution' 
in England. The tyrannical James II. was driven from 

the throne and fled to 
France, where he obtained; 
sympathy and aid from 
Louis XIV. The people 
of England invited William 

AUTOGRAPH OF LOUIS XIV. ° 

and Mary across the cham 
nel and made them king and queen. So now the Euro- 
pean struggle took the form of a great war between 
Louis XIV., king of France, and William III., king of 
Great Britain and Ireland. This meant war between 
Frenchmen and Englishmen in America as well as in 
Europe. 

The year 1689 is one of the most important dates in 
American history, and ought by all means to be remem- 
1689 an im- bcrcd. It marks the end of " early American 
§°[fi^' history," properly so called. By 1689, all the 
history. English colonies had been founded except 
Georgia. Some of them, such as Pennsylvania and the 
two Carolinas, were still very young colonies, whose 
adult inhabitants had nearly all been born in Europe ; 
in others, such as Massachusetts and Virginia, the grand- 
sons of the first settlers had grown to manhood. By 
1689, the work of La Salle had given to the French do- 
minion its widest extent. In 1689, began the long strug- 

^ In the old Dutch Republic, the chief executive officer, or president 
was called the Stadholder. The word is often wrongly spelled Stadtholder.' 



§§69,70- OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. l6l 

gle between the French and the Enghsh, to determine 
which people should be masters of North America. In 
1689, began the middle epoch in American history that 
extended to 1789. Of this period of just one hundred 
years, the first seventy-four, up to 1763, were occupied 
with the struggle between the French and the English ; 
Ithe last twenty-six, from 1763 to 1789, were taken up 
with the separation of the thirteen English colonies from 
Great Britain, and their organization into a federal na- 
tion, the United States of America. 

Let us remember that the Early Period of American 
History ends with the breaking out of war between 
France and England, in 1689. We have now to enter 
upon the Middle Period, one hundred years in duration, 
which followed. 

f 70. The Blows of Frontenac. In 1689, Louis XIV. 
•5ent Count Frontenac to be governor of Canada. Fron- 
:enac was an old 
man of wonder- 
jiul energy and 

l^ivacity ; tnougn autograph of frontenac. 

nearly seventy 

i^ears of age, he was as gay and spirited as a youth fresh 
from school. He had been governor of Canada before, 
^nd exercised remarkable tact with the red men ; friendly 
Indians adored him, hostile Indians were terribly afraid 
i»f him. He would smear his face with war paint, and 
bper about in the war dance, brandishing a tomahawk 
)ver his head. When the time came for striking, his 
:)lows were apt to be heavy. He now came over to 
"anada with orders to conquer New York. He Fronte- 
^xpected to raise 1,600 men at Montreal and tTcapSre 
:ake them down the Hudson River. It was NewVork. 
ihe time when the city of New York was distracted by 



(^'J^?Vn^i^9Ul^ 



l62 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX, 

the usurpation of Jacob Leisler, and the danger was 
great. But New York was saved for the English by their 
powerful allies, the Five Nations. These Indians had 
already begun war upon Canada, and cut off the fur trade. 
In the summer of 1689, they laid siege to Montreal, and 
roasted and devoured their French captives in full sight 
of that terror-stricken town. So when Frontenac ar- 
rived, he had his hands full with defending Canada, 
and was obliged to defer the plan of conquering New 
York. 

His great scheme dwindled into a frontier raid. In 
February, 1690, a small party of French and Indians, 
sent out by Frontenac, surprised the village of 
Schenec- Schcncctady at midnight and massacred sixty 
^ ^' inhabitants. A few of the people escaped in 

their night-clothes, and found refuge in Albany, half dead 
after their dreadful tramp through the snow. The leader 
of this expedition was a young French Canadian of noble 
birth, named Iberville. 

About a month later, another of Frontenac's war par- 
ties laid waste the village of Salmon Falls, in New 
Hampshire ; and shortly after. Fort Loyal, 
in New Standing where now is the foot of India Street 
in the city of Portland, met with similar treat- 
ment. Such horrible scenes were repeated from year to 
year, and often the frightened people of the exposed 
villages were obliged to flee to their blockhouses for de- 
fense. In 1692, one third of the inhabitants of York, in 
Maine, were massacred ; and, in 1694, more than a hun- 
dred people, mostly women and children, were slaugh- 
tered at Durham, in New Hampshire ; many of these 
unhappy victims were burned alive. Then Groton, in 
Massachusetts, was attacked, and forty people killed. 
Of these Indian assaults, that of Haverhill, in 1697, was 



5 7°- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



163 



perhaps the most famous, on account of the bold exploit 
3f Hannah Dustin, a farmer's wife. 

Mr. Dustin was at work in a field, with his seven chil- 
dren playing about him, when all at once he heard the 




NEW ENGLAND BLOCKHOUSE.l 

Ireadful war whoop. Seizing his gun and leaping upon 
lis horse, he discovered that the Indians were between 
lim and the house, so that it was impossible to story of 
■escue his wife. So he told his children to run of n'rT'^^'^ 
m before him, while he fired back upon the In- Dustin. 
lians and kept them at a distance, and in such wise they 
irrived safely at the nearest fortified house. Meanwhile, 
n Mr. Dustin's house an Indian had seized the baby by 
me of its ankles, and taking it outdoors, swung it against 

* Such strongholds were usually built in or near the New England vil- 
ages, in early times, for protection against Indian attacks. The projecting 
ipper story afforded an advantage in firing down at assailants orinthrow- 
ng down stones upon them. The blockhouse shown above was built 
n 1754, near the junction of the Kennebec and Sebasticook rivers, in 
ilaine. The sketch was made by Justin Winsor in 1852, and is engraved 
1 his America, v. 181;. 



164 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX 

a tree and dashed out its brains. The savages took Mrs. 
Dustin and a neighbor, named Mary Neff, and started 
off for Canada. Among the captives in the party was 
an Enghsh boy who understood the Algonquin language, 
and he learned that at the end of their journey the pris- 
oners were to be tortured. When he told this to Mrs. 
Dustin she resolved upon a bold stroke. They were in 
charge of a party of nine male Indians and three squaws. 
One night, when the savages were sound asleep by their 
camp fire in the New Hampshire woods, Mrs. Dustin, 
Mary Neff, and the boy arose very quietly and took each 
a tomahawk, and with swift and well aimed blows crushed 
in the skulls of ten of their sleeping enemies. One 
young boy and one squaw got away. Mrs. Dustin 
scalped the dead men, and the three companions made 
their way more than a hundred miles through the forest, 
and arrived at Haverhill half dead with hunger and fa- 
tigue. A bounty of jQ^o was paid for the ten scalps, 
and Mrs. Dustin's fame spread so far that the governor 
of Maryland sent her a present. 

The people of New England did not sit quiet while the 
French were thus sending tomahawks and firebrands 
Attempts against them. In 1690, a force of 2,000 Massa- 
QuebKd chusetts militia, led by Sir William Phips, sailed 
Montreal, yp the St. Lawrcncc and laid siege to Quebec ; 
while another force of New York and Connecticut troops, 
under Fitz-John Winthrop, started from Albany to ad- 
vance upon Montreal. But these amateur generals were 
no match for Frontenac, and both expeditions were un- 
successful.^ 

^ It was about this gloomy time that the witchcraft delusion prevailed 
in Massachusetts. Nearly all people at that time believed in witchcraft, 
and in Europe executions for that imaginary crime were frequent. In the , 
Salem Farms, near Salem, half a dozen young girls and an Indian servant 
in the household of Rev. Samuel Parris went into fits, played various 



70, yi. 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



165 



In 1693, Frontenac began to invade and lay waste 
the country of the Five Nations, and by 1697, serious 
he had wrought such havoc there that these ^^^^^ 
haughty Iroquois sued most humbly for mercy. Iroquois. 
Their confederacy never recovered from the blows dealt 
it by Count Frontenac. 

71. The Struggle Renewed in Queen Anne's War. 
In 1697, the war between France and England was ended 
by the treaty of 
Ryswick, and thus 
the conflict known 
as King William's 
War was stopped 
'in America. But 
the peace was of 
'short duration. 
The war in Europe 
broke out again in 
'1 70 1, and blood- 
shed was renewed 
in America. As 
William III. died 
early in 1702, and 

was succeeded by ^^^„,^. 

Queen Anne, this 

war was known in America as Queen Anne's War, 
lasted twelve years. In the course of it, the Indians 
'oerpetrated an atrocious massacre at Deerfield, in 1704, 
'md another at Haverhill, in 1708. In the far South, the 
French and Spaniards, who were now in alliance, sent 

jueer pranks, and accused several persons of having bewitched them. 
This started a panic which lasted through the greater part of the year 
692 ; in the course of it, nineteen persons were hanged for witchcraft, 
md one old man, Giles Corey, was pressed to death under heavy weights 
or refusing to plead " Guilty " or " Not Guilty," 




It 



i66 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX 



from Cuba a fleet to attack Charleston ; but the gal- 
lant South Carolinians were victorious and drove away 
the assailants. In the North, another expedition sailed 
against Quebec, but failed like the first one. English 
troops, however, British and colonial, conquered Nova 
Scotia ; and when the war was ended by the treaty of 
Utrecht, in 1713, that province was ceded to England, 
and the claim of England to the possession of New- 
foundland and the Hudson Bay country was fully recog- 
nized. 

Frontenac had died at Quebec, in 1698, after having 
so thoroughly beaten the Five Nations that they were 
not of much use to us in Queen Anne's War. In 171 5, 
the fighting strength of the confederacy was partially 
repaired by the adoption of the kindred tribe of the 
Tuscaroras, who, after being driven from North Carolini, 
migrated to central New York. After this accession, the 
Iroquois, henceforth known as the Six Nations, formed 
a power by no means to be despised. 

72. French Development and the Third War. 
Though the French had the worst of it in Queen Anne's 




NEW ORLEANS IN 1719.I 

War, they kept steadily strengthening their hold upon 
the interior of the continent. They established a series 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 39. 



} 72. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 167 

of fortified posts connecting the Mississippi valley with 
the Great Lakes ; such as Kaskaskia (1700), Cahokia 
(1700), Vincennes (1705), and Detroit (1701). These 
places afterward grew into towns. Iberville, the leader 
in the Schenectady massacre, made the beginnings of 
[VIobile, in 1702 ; and, in 17 18, his younger brother, 
Bienville, founded New Orleans. 

In the western and southern country, the French were 
It a long distance from the English. Where they were 
lear together there was apt to be trouble, even ^ 

° '■ Capture of 

n time of peace. The French had an estab- Norndge- 
.ishment at Norridgewock in Maine, where they 
Instigated the Abenakis, a neighboring tribe of Indians, 
!,o attack the New England settlements. In 1 724, a force 
•f New England troops captured Norridgewock and de- 
troyed it, 

: At length, in 1 743, war again broke out between France 

;nd England, and lasted five years. In America, this 

^as known as King George's War, because 

reorge II. was then king. Its principal event George's 

/as the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton 

sland, the strongest and most important French fortress 

11 America except Quebec. After a siege of six weeks, 

I was taken, on the 17th of June, 1745, by 4,000 New 

: Ingland militia aided by four British war-ships. This 

jctory was hailed with great enthusiasm on both sides 

the Atlantic, and the American commander, William 

•pperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine, was made a 

ironet. But when the war was ended, in 1748, by the 

"■eaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the British government restored 

ouisburg to France in exchange for Madras in Hindu- 

5|an, which France had taken from the English. Great 

us the wrath of the New England people when they 

lirned that their new conquest had been bartered for a 



i68 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 




heathen city on the 
other side of the 
globe. They knew 
full well that it 
would not be long 
before Louisburg 
would have to be 
conquered again. 

73. War in Ad- 
vance of its Dec- 
laration. It was 
not long. The 
peace of 1748 was 
little more than a 
truce. The people 
of the English col- 
onies, especially 
in Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, and 
Virginia, were be- 
ginning to look 
wistfully across 
the Alleghany 
Mountains ; and, in 1750, the Ohio Company, formed for 
the purpose of colonizing the country along that river, 
surveyed its banks as far as the site where 
Louisville now stands. In 1753, the French, 
taking the alarm, crossed Lake Erie, and began 
to fortify themselves at Presque Isle, at Le Boeuf, and 
at Venango on the Alleghany River. The governor of 
Virginia, Robert Dinwiddle, was much annoyed at this, 
and sent a messenger to warn the French not to advance 
any further. It was a delicate business, requiring firm- 
ness and discretion. The governor intrusted it to a 



FORT DUQUESNE AND ITS APPROACHES. 



Fortifica- 
tions of 
the French 



173- OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. I69 

young land surveyor, only twenty-one years of age, but 
already familiar with Indians and with woodcraft, and 
already noted for courage and sound judgment. The 
name of this young man was George Washington. His 
task involved a winter journey of a thousand miles 
through the wilderness, with seven companions, nego- 
tiations with Indian chiefs as well as French officers, 
and the gathering of information regarding"^the enemy's 
plans. 

I This difficult task was splendidly performed, though, 
of course, the Frenchmen did not heed Washington's 
warnings. The most important point on all that long 
frontier was the spot where Pittsburgh now stands. It 
was the main entrance to the valley of the Ohio, and 
for a long time was called the Gateway of the 

. ■' The Gate- 

West. It was the object of the French to way of the 

keep the English colonists from ever getting 
through this gateway, or across the Alleghany Moun- 
tains. They wished to keep all the interior of the conti- 
nent for themselves. So, in the spring of 1754, while a 
party of English were beginning to build a fort at this 
2;ateway, a stronger party of French came and drove 
them off, and built a fortress of their own there, which 
they called Fort Duquesne. A regiment of Virginia 
troops was already on its way to the place, and upon the 
death of its commanding officer, George Wash- „, , . 

° ' ° Washing- 

ington, the lieutenant-colonel, took command, ton's first 
In a skirmish with the French (May 28, 1754), asa^om" 
Washington fired the first shot in one of the '"^"'^^'■• 
greatest wars of modern times. This skirmish brought 
the enemy upon him in overwhelming numbers, and at 
a stockaded place, called Fort Necessity, the young com- 
mander was obliged (July 4) to surrender his little army. 
Thus early was he taught to endure adverse fortune. 



I 



I/O COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

Things were getting so serious that General Braddock 
came over from England with two regiments of regulars, 
and, early in the summer of 1755, he began his march 
through the forest and toward Fort Duquesne. With 
the colonial militia there were more than 2,000 men, and 
Washington accompanied the expedition as one of Brad- 
dock's staff. Braddock was ignorant of woodland fight- 
ing, and was possessed by the dangerous delusion that 
Indians were not formidable antagonists. He 
Braddock's refused to take good advice, and paid the pen- 
alty. Deep in the wilderness near Fort Du- 
quesne he marched into an ambush, and his army was 
cut to pieces. More than 700 were slain, including 
Braddock himself with three fourths of his officers, and 
total destruction was averted only by the skill and prow- 
ess of Washington. The loss of the French and Indians 
did not exceed sixty men. 

At this time there was danger that the French would 
attempt to recover Nova Scotia, or Acadia, as it was then 
usually called. Since its conquest by the English, the 
peasants of Acadia had shown much disaffection. In 
1755, a force of New England troops landed in 
movai of Acadia, and offered the inhabitants the alterna- 
diant^from ^^^^ of taking the oath of allegiance to George 
their J J QY bei^cr rcmovcd from their country. More 

homes. * -^ 

than 6,000 people who refused the oath were, 
accordingly, removed and distributed among the English 
colonies. The removal was attended with much suffer- 
ing, but was felt to be a needful military measure. 
Many of the exiles found their way to Louisiana, and 
have left numerous descendants in that state. 

74. The Fourth War between France and England. 
The defeat of Braddock and the removal of the Acadians 
occurred before war between France and Great 'Britain 



§74- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



171 



was actually declared. The war which ensued, from 
175610 1763, and which is known as the Seven Years' 
t War, covered a large part of the earth's surface. ^, ^ 

. . . , , The Seven 

France combined with Austria and Russia in Years' 

War 

the attempt to conquer Prussia, which was then 

a small kingdom. But Frederick the Great, king of 

Prussia, proved himself in this war one of the greatest 




WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF CHATHAM.l 

generals that ever lived. England came to his aid, and 
the enemies of England and Prussia were terribly de- 
feated. On England's part, the war was managed by one 
of the greatest statesmen the world has ever seen, the 

■ 1 From the National Portrait Gallery, a publication issued in Philadel- 
phia in the early part of this century. 



172 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX 



Johnson's 
defense of 
the New 
York fron- 
tier in 
1755. 



elder William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham. By his 
firm support of Prussia, Pitt kept the main strength of 
France busily engaged in Europe, while English fleets 
attacked her on the ocean, and English armies drove her 
not only from America, but also from India, where she 
had also gained a foothold. 

In America, the defeat of Braddock was not a cheerful 
opening of the war for the English. Further misfortunes 
followed it. On the New York frontier, the 
English cause was sustained by Sir William 
Johnson, an Irishman who had come to Amer- 
ica, in 1738, and settled in the valley of the Mo- 
hawk. Johnson's influence over the Indians 
of the Six Nations was wonderful, and he was one of 
the most remarkable men of his time. In September, 
1755, he defeated the French in a bloody battle on the 
shore of Lake George. After this he built Fort Wil- 
liam Henry to defend the northern approaches to the 
Hudson River. The French fortified Ticonderoga for 

themselves. 

In 1756, the 
French, under 
their very able gen- 
eral, the Marquis 
de Montcalm, cap- 
tured Oswego and 
gained control oi 
Lake Ontario. In 
1757, ^ Montcalrr 
captured Fort Wil 
liam Henry, wher 
a distressing affaii 
occurred. Th( 

English garrisor 




NEW YORK IN THE FRENCH WAR. 



§74- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



173 



was promised a safe escort to Fort Edward, on the Hud- 
son River, but tlie faithless Indians fell upon ^ 

^ Successes 

the prisoners and massacred them, m spite of all of Mont- 
the French officers could do to restrain their 
fury. The next summer (1758), General Abercrombie, 
at the head of 15,000 British and colonial troops, the 
largest army yet assembled in America, assaulted Ticon- 
deroga, but was terribly defeated by Montcalm. 

This was the last important French victory. With 
prodigious exertions, about 50,000 English troops had 
been raised, — half of them British, half Amer- Turn of 
ican, — and great things began to be done. In ^^^ '"^^' 
July, we captured Louisburg again, and, in November, 
we captured Fort Duquesne and changed its name to 
iFort Pitt; since then 
■it has come to be the 
city of Pittsburgh, still 
bearing the name of 
the great statesman. 
Colonel Washington 
took part in this affair 
and added to his repu- 
tation. 

The next year, 1759, 
saw the great struggle 
decided. In July, the 
English took Forts Ni- 
agara and Ticonderoga. 
The youthful General 
Wolfe spent the sum- 
mer in fruitless attempts to take Quebec, where Mont- 
calm was ensconced with 7,000 men. The place was 
nowhere open to a land attack except upon the north- 

^ After a print in En tick's History of the Late War, London, 1764, iv. 90. 





I 



174 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



west side, where the precipice was so steep as to be 
„ ,„ „ deemed inaccessible. At leno^th, Wolfe found 

How Wolfe . . 

captured a placc whcrc his men with herculean toil could 
ec. ciinib this bluff. It was done under cover of 
darkness, and, on the morning of the 13th of September, 
the astonished Montcalm beheld an English force 5,000 
strong confronting him upon the Heights of Abraham, 
In the battle which followed, the French were totally de- 
feated. At the decisive moment, the two heroic command- '' 
ers were borne from the field with mortal wounds, and 

as life ebbed away,' 
each said his brief' 
and touching words 
which will never be 
forgotten. "Now, 
God be praised, I 
will die in peace,"! 
said Wolfe ; "Thank' 
God, I shall not live 
to see Quebec sur- 
rendered," said the' 
faithful Frenchman. ' 
The surrender of 
Quebec, which took 
place a few days later, 
decided the fate of Canada. But the Seven Years' War 
Transfer of ^^^ ^'^^ come to an end until Spain had taken 
'ft"'th^ up arms in aid of France. Then, in 1762, Eng- 
Seven land conquercd Cuba and the Philippine Islands. 

Years' 

War. When peace was made, in the treaty of Paris 

^'^^^' 1763, England gave all these islands back t( 

Spain and took Florida in exchange. In order to indem 




MONTCALM. i 



1 After an engraving in Bonnechose's Motiicalm et le Canada Fraufais,, 
Paris, 1882. 



§§ 74, 75- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



175 



nify Spain for this loss of Florida, incurred through alli- 
ance with France, the latter power ceded to Spain the 
|City of New Orleans and all the scarcely known territory 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Moun- 
tains. The country between the Mississippi and the 
Alleghanies, and the whole of Canada, were surrendered 
to Great Britain, 
so that not an 
lacre of mainland 
in North Amer- 
ica remained in 
[the possession of 
France. No other 
:reaty ever trans- 
ferred such im- 
mense portions of 
•:he earth's sur- 




NORTH AMERICA AFTER THE PEACE OF 1 763. 



tace from one na- 
':ion to another. 
75. The Algonquin Indians Left Unprotected. The 

pomplete overthrow of the French came as a terrible 
ihock to the Algonquin Indians, who now found them- 
ielves quite unprotected from the encroachments of 
^nglish settlers. It occurred to Pontiac, chief of the 
3ttawas, that if all the tribes could be made to unite 
n a grand assault upon the English, there might be a 
:hance of overthrowing them. Pontiac succeeded in 
.rousing to bloodshed most of the tribes be- „ ^. , 

<=> .... Pontiac s 

ween the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, and scheme to 

... 1 r- r A.1 overcome 

ic even prevailed upon the benecas, one or the the 
Six Nations, to join him. The war broke out ^"s^'^^- 
n 1763, soon after the end of the great French War. 
fwo years of savage butchery followed, in the course of 
: yhich many of the English forest garrisons in the West 



176 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

were overcome and massacred, and the frontiers, espe- 
cially in Pennsylvania, became the scene of diabolical 
atrocities. At Bushy Run, in the Alleghanies, in 1764, 
Colonel Henry Bouquet won the fiercest battle ever 
fought between white men and Indians ; the Senecas 
were browbeaten and cajoled by Sir William Johnson ; 
and finally, Pontiac, after suing for peace, was murdered 
in the woods at Cahokia. Useless butchery was all that 
ever came of his deep-laid scheme. 

topics and questions. 

68. The Mississippi Valley Claimed for France by La 

Salle. 

1. French traders and missionaries in the northwest. 

2. The discovery of the Mississippi. 

3. La Salle and the Griffin. , 

4. La Salle and the mutineers. 

5. The second attempt to explore the Mississippi, and its 

failure. 

6. The third attempt, and its success. 

7. What the Louisiana of La Salle included. 

8. The New France of Champlain and of La Salle. 

9. Efforts to take armed possession of Louisiana. 

69. The Outbreak of War between France and England. 

1. How did the French propose to defend their claims ? 

2. In what way did the English become involved in war with 

the French ? 

3. Why is 1689 an important date in American history.'' 

4. What two great struggles fill up the Middle Period ? 

70. The Blows of Frontenac. 

1. How Frontenac won the favor of Indians. 

2. His plan for conquering New York. 

3. How the Iroquois saved New York, 

4. The massacre at Schenectady. 

5. Frontenac's dreadful war parties in New England. 

6. The story of Hannah Dustin. 

7. New England's vain endeavors to punish Frontenac. 

8. Frontenac's victories over the Iroquois. 

71. The Struggle Renewed in Queen Anne's War. 

I. The treaty of Ryswick. 



Ch. IX. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 1 77 

2. Queen Anne's War. 

3. Leading events in this war, 

4. English gains by the treaty of Utrecht. 

5. The Iroquois in Queen Anne's War and later. 

72. French Development and the Third War. 

1. A chain of French forts, and their object. 

2. The Norridgewock episode. 

3. King George's War. 

4. The capture of Louisburg. 

5. Louisburg under the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 

6. The wrath of New England excited. 

73. War in Advance of its Declaration. 

1. What was the purpose of the Ohio Company ? 

2. What did the French do in their alarm ? 

3. What warning did Virginia give the French .'' 

4. Describe the messenger and his performance. 

5. Tell about the Gateway of the West. 

6. Show how the French and English struggled for it, and 

why. 

7. Describe Washington's movement to capture Fort Du- 

quesne, and what came of it. 

8. Describe Braddock's movement to do the same, and what 

came of it. 
j 9. What alternative was offered the Acadians, and why? 
I 10. Give an account of their removal. 
'4. The Fourth War between France and England. 

1. The dates and extent of the Seven Years' War. 

2. The nations involved in it. 

3. England's management of her part in it. 

4. Johnson's defense of the New York frontier, in 1755. 

5. Montcalm's successes in three campaigns. 

6. The turn of the tide. 

7. How Wolfe captured Quebec. 

8. How Florida came into English possession. 
I 9. Louisiana east of the Mississippi. 

' 10. Louisiana west of the Mississippi. 

II. The end of French plans in North America. 
iS. The Algonquin Indians Left Unprotected. 
'i I. The plight of these Indians, and its cause. 

2. Pontiac's great scheme. 

3. The tribes enlisted in it. 



178 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

4. Two years of savage warfare. 

5. The fate of Pontiac. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. France and England were involved in each of these European 

wars : 

a. The war of the Palatinate, 1689-1697. 

b. The war of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1713. 

c. The war of the Austrian Succession, 1743-1748. 

d. The Seven Years' War, 1 756-1 763. 

Show how France and England became involved. What wars 
in North America corresponded to them ? By what treaty 
was each of these wars closed ? What were the gains and 
losses of territory in North America for France and England 
by each of these treaties? Make a table of the four French 
and English wars in America, with their dates and leading 
events. 

2. What regions did New France in its greatest extent embrace? 

3. What regions did Louisiana in its greatest extent embrace ? 

4. What was the basis of the French claim to Louisiana? 

5. Grants of land by the English extended how far west? 

6. What was the basis of the English claim to the lands thus 

granted ? 

7. Was not the French claim as reasonable as the English ? 

8. Show how conflicts were inevitable because of these claims. 

9. Compare French settlers and English in the following points : 

a. Treatment of the Indians. 

b. Missionary spirit. 

c. Toleration of other religions. 

d. Dependence on the home government in Europe. 

e. Rapidity and greatness of development. 

10. Why did the English gradually work westward ? Why do 

people nowadays work westward ? 

11. Locate on their appropriate maps all places mentioned in the text. 

12. Were Indians engaged on both sides in each of the wars of this 

period ? Were they as cruel on one side as on the other ? 
Wherein did Indian warfare differ from French or English 
warfare? Is not all warfare essentially cruel and brutal? 
Is it possible always to avoid war? 

13. What feasible policy of colonization might have saved Ne\» 



Ch. IX. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. I79 

France for the French ? Were Huguenots, for instance, 
encouraged to settle in New France.-* 

14. On what facts of history in the text is Longfellow's Evangelme 

based ? Compare the French view of the banishment of the 
Acadians with the English. Which view does the poem 
present? How much of the poem is to be trusted as histor- 
ical truth ? How much is imagination ? Select from the 
poem pleasing lines about Acadian history, life, or scenery. 

15. What reminders of old New France are there in North Amer 

ica to-day ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Of the twelve volumes of Parkman's works, as published by 
Little, Brown & Company, of Boston, eleven deal more, or less 
directly with the events lightly touched in this chapter. If the 
pupil will read the few selections here indicated, he will hardly fail 
to extend his reading to other parts of the intensely fascinating 
books from which they are taken. 

From La Salle and the Disco7'ertes of the Great West : 

I. Louis XIV. proclaimed King of the Great West, 40-46. 
I 2, Marquette and Joliet's discover}' of the Mississippi, 51-64. 

f 3. The vast projects of La Salle, 73, 74. 

4. Destruction of the great village of the Illinois, 201-221. 

5. La Salle's descent of the Mississippi, 275-288. 

6. The assassination of La Salle, 396-408. 
From Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. : 

I. The plan of Louis XIV. to conquer New York, 184-190. 
j 2. The boldness of Frontenac in dealing with the Indians, 

\ 191-207. 

3. Frontenac's three war parties : 

a. The Montreal party and Schenectady, 208-219. 

b. The Three Rivers party and Pemaquid, 219-228. 

c. The Quebec party and Fort Loyal, 228-234. 

4. The romantic career of Sir William Phips, 241-243. 

5. Frontenac's defense of Quebec, 262-285. 

6. The Iroquois the scourge of Canada, 286-315. 

7. Why another France did not grow up beyond the Alle- 

ghanies, 394-396- 

8. The humbling of the Iroquois, 410-427. 



l80 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

From A Half Centztry of Conflict : 

1. The founding of Detroit, i. 15-31. 

2. The Deerfield tragedy, i. 52-89. 

3. The story of Sebastien Rale, i. 204-240. 

4. Lovewell's fight with the Pequawkets, i. 247-260. 

5. The Foxes at Detroit, i. 262-287. 

6. The chain of posts, ii. 63-77. 

7. The siege and capture of Louisburg, ii. 108-160. 
From Montcalm and Wolfe : 

1. Washington baffled by the French and Indians, i. 132-161. J 

2. Braddock's march and defeat, i. 204-226. 

3. The expulsion of the Acadians, i. 234-284. 

4. The battle of Lake George, i. 285-316. 

5. The capture of Fort William Henry, i. 474-513. 

6. The triumph of Montcalm at Ticonderoga, ii. 83-112. 

7. The Heights of Abraham, ii. 259-297. 

8. The last of New France, ii. 408-412. 
From The Cotispiracy of Pontiac : 

1. The story of the French and English wars reviewed, 

i. 95-141- 

2. The wilderness and its tenants, i. 642-660. 

3. The Indians angered by English inroads, i. 172-180. 

4. Pontiac and his great plot, i. 180-190. 

5. The treachery of Pontiac, i. 223-231. 

6. An Indian game of ball and its awful sequel, i. 338-367. 

7. Frontier forts and settlements, ii. 1-27. 

8. The war on the borders, ii. 28-53. 

9. The Indians forced by Bouquet to give up their captives, 

ii. 219-235. 

10. The strange charms of forest life, ii. 237-240. 

11. The death of Pontiac, ii, 299-313. 



THE REVOLUTION. 
1763-1789. 



CHAPTER X. 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 1763-1776. 

76. Causes of 111 Feeling between England and her 
Colonies. When European nations began to plant colo- 
nies in America, they treated them in accordance with a 
theory which prevailed mitil it was upset by the Ameri- 
can Revolution. According to this ignorant and bar- 
barous theory, a colony was a community which 
existed only for the purpose of enriching the peanidea 
country which had founded it; and the great and its °"^ 
object in founding a colony was to create a de- °^J^^*- 
pendent community for the purpose of trading with it. 
People's ideas about trade were very absurd. It was not 
understood that when two parties trade with each other 
freely, both must be gainers, or else one would soon stop 
trading. It was supposed that in trade, just as in gam- 
bling or betting, what the one party gains the other loses. 
Accordingly, laws were made to regulate trade, so that, as 
:ar as possible, all the loss might fall upon the colonies, 
ind all the gain accrue to the mother country. For this 
Durpose, the colonies were required to confine their trade 
mtirely to Great Britain. No American colony could 
5end its rice, or its indigo, or its tobacco to France or 
:o Holland, or anywhere except to Great Britain ; nor 
:ould it buy a yard of French silk, or a pound of Chinese 



1 82 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

tea, except from British merchants. Then, although j 
American ships might take goods over to Eng- i 

Restric- , , , • i i i i-rr 

tions in land, the carrymg trade between the diiterent ' 
"urhi^g^and colonics was by law confined to British ships. 
trading. Next, in order to protect British manufacturers | 
from competition, it was thought necessary to prohibit I 
the colonists from manufacturing. They might grow 
wool, but it must be carried to England to be woven i 
into cloth ; they might smelt iron, but it must be car- ' 
ried to England to be made into plowshares. Finally, 
in order to protect British farmers and their landlords, 
corn laws were enacted, putting a prohibitory tariff on 
all kinds of grain and other farm produce shipped from 
the colonies to ports in Great Britain. 

Such tyrannical laws had begun to be passed in the 
reign of Charles II., but they were not very strictly en- 
forced, because so long as the French were a power in | 
America, the British officials felt that they could not af- 
ford to irritate the colonists beyond endurance. In spite 
of laws to the contrary, the carrying trade between the . 
colonies was almost monopolized by vessels owned, built, 
and manned in New England ; and the smuggling of 
foreign goods into Boston and New York and other sea- 
port towns was winked at. 

In 1 76 1, attempts were made to enforce the revenue 

laws more strictly ; and trouble was at once threatened, j 

Charles Paxton, commissioner of customs in Boston, ap- , 

phed to the Superior Court to grant him the authority to 

use writs of assistance in searching for smuggled goods. 

A writ of assistance was a general search war- 
Efforts to , rr 1 • 1 • i- 

enforce rant, empowcnug the officer armed with it to 
iy°the\ev- enter, by force if necessary, any dwelling house 
enueiaws. ^^ warehouse where contraband goods were : 
supposed to be stored or hidden. A special search !, 



I'l 



76. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 1 83 

irarrant was one in which the name of the suspected per- 
on, and the house which it was proposed to search, were 
ccurately specified, and the goods which it was intended 

seize were as far as possible described. In the use 
f such special warrants there was not much danger of 
;ross injustice or oppression, because the court would 
LOt be likely to grant one, unless strong evidence could 
le brought against the person whom it named. But the 
;eneral search warrant, or writ of assistance, was quite 
, different affair. It was a blank form upon which the 
ustom house officer might fill in the names of persons 
,nd descriptions of houses and goods to suit himself, 
rhen he could summon the sheriff to help him break 
nto the houses and seize the goods. The writ of assist- 
.nce was, therefore, an outrageous instrument of tyranny ; 
)ut the issue of such writs was strictly legal, because it 
lad been allowed by an old act of Parliament which had 
lever been repealed. 

' The case was tried in the council chamber in the build- 
ng now known as the Old State House, in Boston. 
7he eloquent James Otis, in opposition to the granting 

1 the writs, made a great speech which tended to raise 
he question, how far were Americans bound to yield 
bedience to laws which they had no share in making, 
'he writs were granted, and custom house officers began 
reaking into warehouses, and seizing goods which were 
lid to have been smuggled ; but sometimes the owners 
rmcd themselves, and barricaded their doors and win- 
3\vs, and thus the officers were often successfully de- 
ed, for the sheriff was in no haste to come and help 
'lem. 

' These things produced much ill feeling, but were 

irdly enough to bring on a revolution. For that some 

's'.ore direct and flagrant attack on American liberty was 



1 84 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X- 



Difficulty 
in carrying 
on the 
French 
wars. 

enough. 



required ; and such an attack was soon made. Let us 
see how it was that the British government came to 
make such an attack. 

77. The Need of a Federal Union. The great war 
with France had been carried on by British and Ameri- 
can troops, and its expense was borne partly by 
Great Britain, partly by the colonies. Now one 
great difficulty in carrying on the war was the 
difficulty in getting men and money promptly 
This was because there was no general govern- 
ment in America, but only the separate governments of 

the thirteen colonies. 
One colony would 
wait for another to 
act, and a colony not 
immediately exposed 
to invasion would be 
very slow in raising 
either soldiers or sup- 
plies. There ought 
to have been some 
power in America 
legally able to enlist 
soldiers from the 
whole people, and to 
tax the whole peo- 
ple for the support 
of the war. There 
was no such power, and the country suffered for want 
of it. 

In order to create such a power it would be necessary 
to join the colonies together into a Federal Union. One 

^ It was situated on Milk Street, Boston, nearly opposite the Old South 
Church. It was burned down in 1810. 




BIRTHPLACE OF FRANKLIN.l 




Cy%^y^Q^'^'^2^ri. 



After a painting by Duplessis in the Boston Museum of Fine 



Arts. 



XII Mofy February hath jtxyiii days* 



Man's rich with litc]c;,,weie;hi5 Judgment.trug, 
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Fancy^ndPridefeelc Things atvafl Expence, 
Which leliih .not ,ro Keafon nor to Sevje 
Like Gats in Airpumps;; to fubfift -weltii^e. 
Ohjoystoo thin ro keep the Soul alive. 



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CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



187 



ase man tried to bring this about, but did not succeed. 

n 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed his Plan Benjamin 

f Union. At that time, Franklin was forty- franklin. 

ight years old. He was born in Boston, but went to 

'hiladelphia at the age of seventeen, and became estab- 

shed in business, first as a printer, afterward as editor 

f the Pennsylvania Gazette. He founded the Philadel- 

hia Library and the Uni- 

ersity of Pennsylvania. He 

lade many useful inventions, 

mong them, a kind of open 

tove that has not yet gone 

Wt of use. He also made 

ne of the greatest scientific 

iscoveries of the age, in 

752, when, by experiments 

ith a kite, he proved that 

ghtnine: is a discharofe of 




FRANKLIN S rRi.NTI.Nu 



f.ectricity. He was also one 

f the finest prose writers of that century. In 1753, the 

ing appointed him postmaster-general for America, and 

\x the rest of his long life he played an important part 

'i public affairs. 

I In 1754, when the war with France was breaking out, 

^veral colonies sent delegates to a Congress at Albany, 

t insure the friendly aid of the Six Nations. ^ , ,. , 

■' Franklin's 

iranklin was present at this Congress, and Plan of 
Ijroposed a Plan of Union for the colonies. 
Iccording to this plan, the colonies were to elect a 
irand Council which was to meet every year at Phila- 
^Iphia, the most centrally situated large town. This 
ouncil would have had powers similar to those of our 

^} This press may now be seen at the rooms of the Bostonian Society, 
hhe Old State House, at Boston. 



1 88 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. 

National House of Representatives ; it could levy taxcl 
enlist soldiers, build forts, and was to be supreme ov 
matters which concerned all the colonies alike. Th( 
there was to be a president appointed and paid by t^ 
crown, and with authority to veto the acts of the Grai 
Council. 

This plan of union has ever since been called the / 
bany Plan. If the Revolution had not occurred, ^; 
should very likely have been living under some su( 
kind of constitution to-day. On the other hand, if tl| 
Albany Plan had been adopted in 1754, it is quite pc 
sible that there would have 
been no Revolution. Franklin 
strongly felt the need of such 
a Federal Union, and for a 
while his Pennsylvania Ga- 
zette appeared with a union 
device and the motto " Unite 
or Die." ^ But not one of the colonies accepted the pla^ 
The people cared little or nothing for union. A natiy 
of Massachusetts regarded himself as a Massachuset 
man, or a New Englander, or an Englishman ; not as 2. 
American, with Pe nn sylvan i an s and Virginians for cou' 
trymen. So it was with all the colonies ; in all, the fee 
ing of Americanism grew but slowly. 

78. The Stamp Act Passed and Repealed. TY 
French War and Pontiac's War proved that some kir 
of general government that could levy taxes and enli; 
soldiers was an absolute necessity, and since the peop 
of the colonies would not make such a government, tt 
British undertook to provide one for us. In other word 
Parliament undertook to support a small army for th 

1 The initials NE, NY, etc., on the fragments of the snake, beginnii 
at the head, stand for New England, New York, etc. 




78. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



1S9 



lefense of the colonies, and to raise the needful money 
'>y a tax gathered from the people of the colonies. It 
iras thought that the pleasantest and easiest way to raise 
'he money would be through revenue stamps. It did not 
all for any .hateful searching of people's houses and 
hops, or any unpleasant questions about their The stamp 
icomes, or about their invested or hoarded by parffa^.'^ 
wealth. It only required that legal documents ™*"^- 
nd commercial instruments should be written, and news- 
papers printed, on stamped paper. While a stamp tax 
'5 thus less annoying than any other kind of tax, it is 
,ery effective for raising money, for it is impossible to 
•vade it ; it enforces itself. For these reasons, Parlia- 
lent, in 1765, passed the Stamp Act. 
; Such an act was something entirely new and unheard 
|f in American history. In each colony there was an 
^sembly or legislature elected by the people, and this 
ssembly was the only power that 
ould tax the people. In other 
'ords, the people could be taxed 
hly by their own representatives, 
'his principle had been estab- 
shed in America from the very 
eginning ; and naturally enough, 
ecause it was a principle that had 
icen recognized in England for at 
^ast five centuries. In the year 

•' A STAMP. 1 

205, the first House of Commons, 

illed together by the great Simon de Montfort, an- 
ounced this principle. Kings sometimes violated it, 
ut at their peril. It was in great part for trying to raise 
Lxes illegally that Charles I. was beheaded. 
Now the people of the American colonies were not 

^ From The Memorial History of Boston, iii. 12. 




190 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch.X 



How this 
Act was 
received by 
the 
colonists. 



represented in the British Parliament, and the Stamp 
Act violated the great principle that the people must noil 
be taxed except by their own representatives. It was 
dangerous tax. The Americans did not wisH 
to support a standing army controlled by thd 
crown ; under a bad king such an army might 
be used to destroy their liberties. People ir 
New England could remember Andros ; people in Vir' 

ginia could re 
member Berkele) 
and his deeds oi 
blood. If then 
must be a mill: 
tary force ove]' 
here, the peopk 
preferred to raise- 
it in their owr 
way and control i1 
themselves. 

When the new5 

of the Stamp Ad 

reached America 

the colonial legis 

latures met anc 

passed resolutions 

Two men came tc 

the front, Samue' 

Adams in Massa 

chusetts, Patriclv 

Henry in Vir 

ginia. The former was one of the ablest political writers, 

the latter was one of the most brilliant orators, of that 

age. Both Adams and Henry declared that taxation with- 

1 After a painting by Copley in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 




SAMUEL ADA.M.^ 



78. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



191 



ut representation was illegal, and would not be endured. 
L Congress was held at New York which approved of 
tiese resolutions, 
nd sent over to 
England a remon- 
trance denying 
tie right of Par- 
ament to tax the 
Americans. There 
rere riots in sev- 
ral cities. Boxes 
f stamped paper 
rriving by ship 
rere seized and 
urned ; lawyers 
greed with one 
nother not to 
reat any docu- 
ment as invali- 
.ated by the ab- 
ence of the required stamp ; editors published their 
Newspapers decorated with a grinning skull and cross- 
Jones instead of the stamp. 

; As the Americans would not buy or use the stamps, 
j'arliament repealed the Stamp Act the next year, 1766, 
fter a fierce debate that lasted three months. „ , . 

Repeal of 

Villiam Pitt declared that such an act ought the stamp 

Act. 

;ever to have been passed, and he praised the 
Americans for resisting a bad and dangerous law. The 
lajority in Parliament did not take this view ; they re- 
pealed the law as a concession to the Americans, but 
eclared that Parliament had a right to make whatever 
Lws it pleased. But some men of great influence agreed 
1 After a painting by Sully. 




PATRICK HENRY.l 



192 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



with Pitt in holding that such a form of taxation without 
representation was unconstitutional and ought to be re- 
sisted. 

79. Taxation in England. The people of London 
were delighted at the repeal of the Stamp Act, and it 
seemed as if all the trouble were at an end. So it might 
have been, but for that agreement of opinion between 
the Americans and Pitt. In getting such a powerfuL 
friend in Pitt, the Americans found an implacable enemy 
in the new king, George III., who had come to the throne 
in 1760, at the age of twenty-two. There was then going' 

on in England a hot dispute 
over this very same business 
of " no taxation without rep- 
resentation," and it was a 
dispute in which the youth- 
ful king felt bound to op- 
pose Pitt to the bitter end. 
Let us see just what the 
dispute was. 

In such a body as the 
British House of Commons 
Mr the American House of 
Representatives, the differ- 
ent parts of the country are 
represented according to 
population. For example, to-day New York, with over 
5,000,000 inhabitants, has thirty-four representatives in 
Congress, while Delaware, with about 170,000 inhabit- 
ants, has only one representative. This is a fair pro- 
portion ; but as population increases faster in some 
places than in others, the same proportion is liable to 
become unfair. To keep it fair it must now and then be 

1 After a print in Entick's History of the Late lVa7; 3d ed., London, 
1770, vol. iv. 




GEORGE iii.i 



r 



§79- CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. I93 

changed. In the United States, every tenth year, after 
a new census has been taken, we have the How the 
seats in the House of Representatives freshly representa- 

^ ^ tion of the 

distributed among the States, so that the rep- people is 
resentation is always kept pretty fair. A hun- the' United 
dred men in any one part of the country count ^'^'"• 
for about as much as a hundred men in any other 
part. 

Now in England, when George III. came to the throne, 
there had been nothing like a redistribution of seats in 
the House of Commons for more than two hun- 
dred years. During that time, some old towns of affairs 
and districts had dwindled in population, and George iii 
some great cities had lately grown up, such as came to the 
Manchester and Sheffield. These cities had 
no representatives in Parliament, which was as absurd 
and unfair as it would be for a great state like Missouri 
to have no representatives in Congress. On the other 
hand, the little towns and thinly peopled districts kept 
on having just as many representatives as ever. One 
place, the famous Old Sarum, had members in Parlia- 
ment long after it had ceased to have any inhabitants at 
all! 

The result was that people who could not get repre- 
sentation in Parliament by fair means got it by foul 
means. Seats for the little towns and districts were 
simply bought and sold, and such practices made politi- 
cal life at that time very corrupt. Parliament did not 
truly represent the people of Great Britain ; it repre- 
sented the group of powerful persons that could buy up 
enough seats to control a majority of votes. 

During the reigns of the first two Georges, this group 
of powerful persons consisted of the leaders of the party 
of Old Whigs. They ruled England, and reduced the 



194 



THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X 



power of the crown to insignificance. Their rule was 
mostly wise and good, but it was partly based on bribery 
and corruption. The Old Whigs may be called the Aris- 
tocratic party. Among their leaders were such great 
men as Charles Fox and Edmund Burke. 

When George III. became king, he was determined to 
be a real king, to set the Old Whig families at defiance, 
and to rule Great Britain according to his own notions. 
In these views the young king was generally supported 
by the Tories, whom we may call the Royalist party. 
In order to succeed in their schemes, it was necessary 
to beat the Old Whigs at their own game, and secure 
a steady majority in Parliament by methods involving 
bribery and corruption. 

Beside these two parties of Tories and Old Whigs, a 
third had been for some time growing up. It was called 
the party of New Whigs. As opposed alike to Royalists 
and Aristocrats, the New Whigs were the Democrats of 
that time. Among sundry reforms advocated by them, 
the most important was the redistribution of seats in the 
House of Commons. They wished to stop the whole- 
sale corruption, and to make that assembly truly repre- 
sent the people of Great Britain, The principal leader 
of this party was William Pitt, who, in i ^66, became Earl 
of Chatham. 

We can now see why the antagonism between the king 
^^ , . , and Pitt was so obstinate and bitter. With a 

Ine king's 

bitterness reformed Parliament, the king's schemes would 
andhisrea- be ruiucd ; their only chance of success lay 
son for It. jj^ keeping the old kind of Parliament with 
all its corruptions. So when Pitt declared that it was 
wrong for the people of great cities, like Leeds and Bir- 
mingham, who paid their full share of taxes, not to be 
represented in Parliament, the king felt this to be a very 



§§79, So- CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. I95 

dangerous argument. He felt bound to oppose it by 
every means in his power. 

Now the debates on the Stamp Act showed that the 
same principle applied to the Americans as to the inhab- 
itants of Birmingham and Leeds. " No taxation without 
representation," the watchword of Patrick Henry and 
Samuel Adams, was also the watchword of William Pitt. 
The king, therefore, felt that in the repeal of the Stamp 
Act, no matter on what ground, the New Whigs had 
come altogether too near winning a victory. He could 
not let the matter rest, but felt it necessary to take it up 
again, and press it until the Americans should submit to 
be taxed by Parliament. This quarrel between George 
HI. and the Americans grew into the Revolutionary 
War. In that struggle, the people of England were not 
our enemies ; we had nowhere better friends than among 
the citizens of London, and on the floors of the House of 
Commons and the House of Lords. As a rule, the New 
Whigs and Old Whigs sympathized with the Americans ; 
of the Tories, some went heartily with the king, while 
others disapproved his measures, but were unwilling to 
oppose them. Among the Americans there were a good 
many Tories, mostly of the latter class. 

80. A New Scheme for Taxing America. The quar- 
rel was begun in 1767, when Charles Townshend, chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, carried through Parliament a new 
bill for taxing the Americans. This bill put a duty upon 
tea, glass, paper, and a few other articles, upon entering 
American ports. The colonists, said Townshend, had 
paid port duties before ; let them now do so again. But 
when we observe what use was to be made of the reve- 
nue thus collected, we shall see why the Americans were 
not likely to submit to such duties. Governors, judges, 
and crown attorneys were to be made independent of the 



196 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X 



Lord 

North. 

ister. 



colonial legislatures by having their salaries paid by the 
crown out of this money. A small army was also to be 
kept up ; and if any surplus remained, it could be used 
by the crown in giving pensions to Americans, and thus 
be made to serve as a corruption fund. These measures 
would put the whole administration of affairs into the 
hands of officials responsible only to the crown ; and to 
ask the Americans to submit to them was about as sen- 
sible as it would have been to ask them to buy halters 
and hang themselves. 

After getting these measures passed, Townshend sud- 
denly died, and his place was taken by Lord 
North, who soon afterward became Prime Min- 
North was one of those Tories who did not fully 

approve the king's con- 
duct, but were unwill- 
ing to oppose him in 
anything. Through his 
personal influence over 
Lord North, the king 
' ontrived to have his 
«wn way from 1768 to 
i 782, and he must be 
held responsible for 
driving the Americans 
into the Revolution. 

The Americans at 
first met the Towns- 
hend acts by forming 
associations pledged to abstain from importing the duti- 
able articles. The Massachusetts assembly sent a cir- 
cular letter to the assemblies of the other colonies, 
inviting them to concert measures of resistance. This 

1 From the London (1801) edition of Junius. 




LORD NORTH. 



§«o. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



197 



enraged the king, and presently an order came across 
the ocean to the governor of Massachusetts to „ 

.... How the 

demand of the assembly that it rescmd its cir- colonists 
cular letter, under penalty of instant dissolu- Towns- 
tion. The assembly, by a vote of ninety-two ^^""^^cts. 
to seventeen, refused to rescind, and was turned out of 
doors. In some other colonies, the assemblies were 
dissolved for replying favorably to the Massachusetts 
letter. During the next few years, the royal governors 
dissolved the assemblies so often as to interfere seri- 
ously with public business. In Virginia, the assembly, 
after being thus dismissed, used sometimes to meet in- 
formally as a convention in the large ball room of the 
Raleigh Tavern at Williamsburg (known as the Apollo 




^i jiii'ijj 




H\^*f^^, 



APOLLO ROOM IN THE RALEIGH TAVERN. 1 



Room), and there agree upon the course to be pursued. 
In Massachusetts, when the assembly was dismissed, its 
work was to some extent carried on by the Boston town 
meeting in Faneuil Hall, where so many important 
things were done that it came to be called the Cradle 

^ From the Magazine of American History, vol. xi. 



198 



THE REVOLUTION. 



CH.X. 



of Liberty. In the most exciting times, however, 
Faneuil Hall was too small to hold the people, and the 
meeting used to adjourn to the Old South Meeting- 
house. 

In the autumn of 1768, the king sent a couple of 




FANEUIL HALL, " THE CRADLE OF LIBERTY." 1 



regiments of British regulars to Boston, to assist in <. 
British enforcing the Townshend acts. This was a 
regulars. ^.^^j^ mcasurc, sure to invite disturbance, and 
the only wonder is that the disturbance did not come 
sooner. In March, 1770, after the troops had been 
nearly a year and a half in the town, there occurred a I 






^ It was built in 1740-42, at the expense of Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot 
merchant of Boston, as a market house for the town. The second story 
contained the spacious hall which was used for public meetings. The 
building was enlarged and improved, without altering its style, in 1806. 



§§ 8o, 8i. . CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. igg 

scrimmage one evening, in which seven soldiers fired 
into a crowd of townspeople, killing five and wounding 
several others. Next day there was an immense meet- 
ing at the Old South Meeting-house, and Samuel Adams 
called upon the governor in his council chamber, and, 
in the name of three thousand freemen, sternly com- 
manded him to remove the soldiers from the town. 
Before sunset they had all been withdrawn to one of 
the little islands in the harbor. 

81. The Widening of the Breach. When the news 
of this rebuff reached the king, it found him rather 
discouraged. Business in London was suffer- ^ 

^ . . Certain 

ing because the Americans would not import duties 
goods, and, in April, 1770, Parliament took off ^^^^^ ■ 
all the Townshend duties except the duty on tea, which 
the king insisted upon retaining, in order to avoid sur- 
rendering the principle at issue. He was waiting for 
a chance to "try the question " with America. Mean- 
while, there were disturbances in different colonies ; in 
North Carolina, there was an insurrection against the 
governor, which was suppressed only after a bloody 
skirmish ; in Rhode Island, the revenue schooner Gas- 
pee was seized and burned, and when an order came 
from the ministry requiring the offenders to be sent to 
England for trial, the chief justice of Rhode Island, 
Stephen Hopkins, refused to obey the order. 

In August, 1772, it was ordered that in Massachu- 
setts the judges should henceforth be paid by the 
crown. Popular excitement rose to fever heat, and the 
judges were threatened with impeachment should they 
dare accept a penny from the royal treasury, « commit- 
Samuel Adams put in operation a scheme by conespon- 
which government could go on in the absence dence." 
of a legislature. Each town in Massachusetts appointed 



200 



THE REVOLUTION. 



CH.X. 




CAI'lTOL AF WILLIAM 



a committee to confer with the committees of other 
towns. These were called " committees of correspon- 
dence." Any single committee, after obtaining the 
approval of the others, was capable of conducting very- 
important affairs. 
All the commit- 
tees meeting to- 
gether would 
make a " Provin- 
cial Congress." 

In the next 
spring, 1773, Vir- 
ginia carried this 
work of organiz- 
ing revolution a 
long step further, 
when Dabney 
Carr provided for 
committees of correspondence between the several col- 
onies. From this point it was but a short step to a 
permanent Continental Congress. 

82. The Reception of the Tea Ships. That step was 
soon to be taken, for, at length, the king had found an 
opportunity for " trying the question " with America. 
Thus far, the Americans had successfully resisted him, 
and got rid of all the duties except on tea. As for tea, 
they had plenty, but not from England ; they smuggled 
it from Holland in spite of custom houses and search 
warrants. Clearly, unless they could be made to buy tea 
from England and pay the duty on it, George III. must 
own himself defeated. Since it appeared that they 
could not be forced into doing this, it remained to be 
seen if they could be tricked into doing it. A truly 
ingenious scheme was devised. Tea sent by the East 

^ From the Magazine of American History y vol. xi. 



I 



J 



5 82. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. i6t 

India Company to America had always paid a duty in 
some British port on the way. This duty was now taken 
off, and this made the Company's tea so cheap that the 
American merchant could buy a pound of it, and pay the 
threepence duty beside, for less than it cost him to smug- 
gle a pound of tea from Holland. It was supposed that 
the Americans would, of course, buy the tea which they 
could get most cheaply, and would thus be beguiled into 
submission to that principle of taxation which they had 
hitherto resisted. Ships laden with tea were accord- 
ingly sent, in the autumn of 1773, to Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, and Charleston ; and consignees were ap- 
pointed to receive the tea in each of these towns. 

This sending of the tea was not a commercial opera- 
tion, but simply a political trick. It was George III.'s 
way of asking the Americans, " What are you going to 
do about it .'' " Such an insulting challenge merited the 
reception which it got. In the three other cities, the 
consignees of the tea were browbeaten into resigning 
their commissions, biit in Boston they refused to resign, 
and so it was in Boston that the issue was tried. The 
chief manager of the affair was Samuel Adams. When 
the ships arrived, they were anchored under guard of a 
committee of citizens ; if they were not unloaded within 
twenty days, the custom house officers were empowered 
by law to seize them and unload them by force ; and 
having once come into port, they could not legally go 
out to sea without a clearance from the collector or 
a pass from the governor. The situation was thus a 
difficult one, but it was grandly met. In an earnest 
and prayerful spirit, the advice of all the towns in 
Massachusetts was sought, and the response was unani- 
mous that the tea must on no account whatever be 
landed. Similar expressions of opinion came from other 



202 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



colonies, and Samuel Adams knew 
well that he was backed by the pub- 
lic opinion of the whole continent. 
Town meetings were held, and the 
owner of the ships was told to takr 
them away without unloading ; bu: 
the collector contrived to fritter away 
the time until the nineteenth day, 
and then refused a clearance. On 
the next day, the 
i6th of Decem- 
ber, 1773, seven 
^^^S:s-_ thousand people 

were assembled 
in town meeting 
■ - __ in and around 

%: the Old Sout:. 
Meeting-House, 
while the owner 
of the ships was 
sent out to the 
governor at his 
country house 
to ask for a pass. 
It was nightfall 
when he re- 
turned without 
it, and there was then but one thing to be done. By sun- 
rise next morning, the revenue officers would board the 
ships and unload their cargoes, the consignees would go 

^ The first church built upon this spot was a wooden one, finished in 
1669. Some of the most notable political meetings in the reign of Charles 
II. were held in it, and it figured conspicuously in the stormy days of An- 
dres. The present brick building, shown in the picture, was put up in 
1729, and is still standing. Since 1879 it has been used as a lecture-room 
and museum for teaching American history. 




'^'^^^r-^'P^^-^^^0 



^m^ 



THE OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE.1 



§§82,83. CAUSES AXD BEGIXXnCGS. 203 

to the custom house and pay the duty, and thus the 
king's audacious scheme would be cro'w'ned with suc- 
cess. The only way to prevent such a wicked result 
was to rip open the tea chests and spill their contents 

into the sea, and this was done, according to a ^ „ 

_ . ° The Bos- 

preconcerted plan, and without the slightest ton Tea 

uproar or disorder, by a small party of men 
disguised as Indians ; among them were some of the 
best of the to'wnsfolk. This afiair has sometimes been 
thoughtlessly spoken of as a riot, but nothing could 
have been less like a riot. It was the deliberate act of 
the commonwealth of Massachusetts, the only a\-ailable 
and proper reply to the king's insulting challenge. It 
was haOed with delight throughout the thirteen colonies, 
and there is nothing in all our histor}- of which an edu- 
cated American should feel more proud. 

83. Lexington and Ckjncord. It was a formal defi- 
ance to the king, and was so accepted In spite of ear- 
nest opposition, the king managed to get retaliator)* acts 
passed by Parliament, in April, 1 774. One of ^^ 
these acts shut up the port of Boston until the reuiiatofy 
people should be stan^ed and frightened into 
paying for the tea that had been thrown overboard By 
another act, the charter of Massachusetts was annulled, 
and a military governor appointed with despotic power 
like Andros. This new governor, Thomas Gage, had 
for some years been commander of the regular troops in 
America. He assumed command over Massachusetts 
on the I St of June, 1 774, but his authority- was never 
recognized. Courts were prevented from sitting, no 
money was paid into Gage's treasury*, and he was in 
even,- way ignored 

The other colonies all showed sympathy with Massa- 
chusetts, and a Continental Congress met at Philadel- 



204 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X 



phia, in September. This Congress drew up a Declara- 
^„ ^ tion of Risfhts, and sent it to the king. The 

The Con- & ' i -n • ■ i 

tinentai people of Massachusetts formed a Provincial 
ongress. (^gngress, with John Hancock for its president, 
and began organizing provincial troops, and collecting 
military stores at Concord and other inland towns. In 
April, 1775, Gage received orders to arrest John Han- 
cock and Samuel Adams, and send them over to Eng- 
land to be tried for 
treason. On the i8th 
of April, these gentle- 
men were staying at a 




friend's house in 
Lexington ; and 
Gage that even- 
ing sent out from 
Boston a force of 
800 men to seize 
the military stores 
at Concord, with 
instructions to 
stop on the way 
at Lexington and 
arrest Adams and 
Hancock. But his plan was detected, and Paul Re- 
, . vere galloped on far in advance of the sol- 

Lexington ^ ^ 

and Con- dicrs, shouting the news at every house that 

he passed. At sunrise, the soldiers found a 

party of armed yeomanry drawn up in military array 



BOSTON AND NEIGHBORHOOD IN 1775. 



§§ $3, S4. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 205 

on Lexington Common. One of the British officers, 
Major Pitcairn, ordered them to disperse, and as they 
remained motionless, the soldiers fired, killing seven 
men. This event was the beginning of the Revolution- 
ary War. 

Before sunset, there was more fighting than the Brit- 
ish had bargained for. By the time they reached Con- 
cord most of the stores had been removed. In a sharp 
skirmish the troops were defeated, and as they marched 
back toward Boston, hundreds of farmers came swarm- 
ing upon them, firing from behind walls and trees after 
the Indian fashion. Militia from twenty-three townships 
joined in the pursuit. The British lost nearly 300 men, 
and though heavily reinforced, narrowly escaped capture. 
The alarm spread like wildfire through New England. 
Within three days, Israel Putnam and Benedict Arnold 
had come from Connecticut, and John Stark from New 
Hampshire, and Governor Gage was besieged in Boston 
by 16,000 yeomanry. 

84. The Battle of Bunker Hill. Now that guns had 
been fired, the Americans were quick to return the 
offensive. On the loth of May, the fortresses at Ti- 
conderoga and Crown Point, commanding the line of 
communication between New York and Canada, were sur- 
prised and captured by men from the Green Mountains 
and Connecticut Valley under Ethan Allen and 
Seth Warner. On that same day, a second second 
Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, and ai Con- 
chose for its president that John Hancock whom ^^^^" 
the British commander-in-chief was under orders to ar- 
rest and send to England. Congress assumed the direc- 
tion of the force besieging Boston, and called for recruits 
from Virginia and the middle colonies to strengthen 
it. Henceforth, it was known as the Continental army, 



206 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

and Congress appointed George Washington to com- 
mand it. 

While these things were going on, reinforcements for 
the British had landed in Boston, making their army 
10,000 strong. With these troops came William Howe, 
who was to supersede Gage in the chief command. The 
British now prepared to occupy the heights in Charles- 
town known as Breed's and Bunker's Hills. These 
heights commanded Boston, so that hostile batteries 
placed there would make it necessary for the British to 
evacuate the town. The Americans learned what was 
going on, and, on the night of June 16, they seized the 
heights for themselves and began fortifying Breed's Hill. 
It was an exposed position for the American force, which 
might easily have been cut off and captured if the British 
had gone around by sea and occupied Charlestown Neck 
in the rear. But instead of this, the British prepared to 
storm the American works. In two desperate assaults, 
on the afternoon of the 17th, they were repulsed with 
the loss of one third of their number. The third assault 
J) { ^ f was successful, but only because the American 
the Ameri- supply of powdcr gavc out. Among the slain 
Bunker was General Joseph Warren, one of the noblest 

TTjll 

of American patriots. The slaughter was ter- 
rible, considering the small size of the armies. Although 
the Americans were defeated, the moral effect of the 
battle was in their favor. For, if the British were to go 
on encountering such resistance, it was clear that they 
would come to the end of their resources long before 
they could subdue the revolted colonies. 

Washington arrived in Cambridge on the 2d of July, ' 
Washing- and had his headquarters for the next nine 
America^n^ mouths in the stately house which was after-: 
army. ward to be the home of the poet Longfellow., 

On the 3d of July, Washington took command of the' 



J 84 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS, 



207 




WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS.l 



American army. For some time he found enough to 
occupy him in organizing and disciplining such an army. 
Meanwhile, Congress sought to avoid further bloodshed 

^ From a recent photograph. This famous house, the finest of the noble 
colonial mansions on Brattle Street, Cambridge, was built by Colonel John 
Vassall, in 1759. Early in 1775, Colonel Vassall left it and joined the 
British in Boston; his estate was then confiscated. General Washington 
occupied the house from July, 1775, until after the capture of Boston, 
March, 1776. 

In later times, this house has been the home of the historian Jared 
Sparks, the orator Edward Everett, and the dictionary maker Dr. 
Worcester. In 1837, it became the home of the poet Longfellow, and it 
is now (1S99) occupied by his eldest daughter. The room at the extreme 
right of the picture, on the first floor, was Washington's ofiice and Long- 
fellow's study. 

My own house, in which this School History has been written, stands 
upon the same estate, a little to the rear of the extreme left of the 
picture. 



208 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



by making one more candid statement of the case in the 
form of a petition to the king. This paper reached Lon- 
don in August, but the king refused to receive it. His 
only reply was a proclamation calling for troops to put 
down the rebellion in America. Finding that English- 
men generally were unwilling to volunteer in a war for 
that purpose, he hired about 20,000 German troops from 
the Duke of Brunswick, the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, 

and other petty 
princes. 

Nothing went 
further to enrage 
the Americans 
and urge them 
forward to a dec- 
laration of inde- 
pendence than 
this hiring of for- 
eigners to fight 
against them. 

85. The Inva- 
sion of Canada. 
Congress an- 

swered by invad- 
ing Canada. This 
was to prevent the 
governor of Canada, Sir Guy Carleton, from invading 
New York. Two lines of invasion were adopted by the 
Americans. Richard Montgomery, with 2,000 men, de- 
scended Lake Champlain and captured Montreal ; while 
Benedict Arnold, with 1,200 men, made a wonderful 

1 From a photograph. The inscription on the stone reads : " Under 
this tree Washington first took command of the American army, July 3. 
1775." T^^ ^^^ ^^ believed to be three hundred years old. 




WASHINGTON ELM.l 



§§ 85, 86. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 209 

march through the primeval wilderness of Maine and 
reached Quebec. Presently, the two commanders joined 
forces, and, on the last night of 1775, made a desperate 
assault upon Quebec. They forced their way into the 
town, but Montgomery was killed and Arnold disabled, 
and the assault was finally repulsed. Reinforcements 
arrived for Carleton, so that, by June, 1776, the Ameri- 
cans had been driven back out of Canada, and Carleton 
resumed his preparations for invading New York. 

While these things were going on, the British were 
driven from Boston. In March, General Washington 
occupied Dorchester Heights, and compelled them to 
evacuate the town. Howe sailed away to Halifax, where 
he made ready for an expedition against the city of New 
York. Late in April, Washington moved to New York 
and prepared to defend the city. 

86. The Declaration of Independence. At the time 
of the battle of Bunker Hill very few Americans looked 
forward to any such thing as separation from Great 
Britain. But as it became more and more clearly impos- 
sible to come to any understanding with George HI., 
the sentiment in favor of independence grew rapidly 
from month to month. In the course of the winter 
there was fighting in North Carolina between the Tories 
and the revolutionary party, in which the former were 
totally defeated. Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of 
Virginia, was driven out of the state, and the British 
fleet upon which he took refuge burned the town of Nor- 
folk. Several of the colonies made for themselves new 
state governments. 

At length, in June, the motion was made in Congress 
" that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to 
be, free and independent states, that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 



210 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



political connection between them and the state of 
Lee's fa- • Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- 
tion'iT"' solved." The motion was made by Richard 
Congress. Henry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by John 
Adams, of Massachusetts. It was carried, on July 2, and 




STATE HOUSE AT PHILADELPHIA.! 

the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas 
Jefferson, was adopted July 4. 

The same peal of bells which celebrated the declara- 
, . , tion welcomed the news of a victory in the 

A victory _ _ -' 

in the South. Sir Henry Clinton had conducted an 

expedition against Charleston. But Colonel 

William Moultrie had built on Sullivan's Island, in the 

! This view of the old State House is taken from the Cohivibian Maga- 
zine, July, 17S7. The building is now known as Independence Hall. It 
was built in 1729-34. Here the Declaration of Independence was adopted; 
and here, in 1787, from May to September, sat the Convention which 
framed the Constitution of the United States. 



§86. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 211 

harbor, a low-lying fortress of palmetto logs ; and, on the 
28th of June, when the British fleet tried to pass in, it 
was terribly cut up by the guns of the fortress, which 




MOULTRIE.l 

suffered but little in return. The British retired from 
the scene, and it was more than two years before they 
made any further attempts upon South Carolina. 

topics and questions. 
76. Causes of III Feeling between England and her Col- 
onies. 

1. What was the European idea of a colony, and of its object ? 

2. What erroneous notions about trade existed ? 

3. What was the main object of the laws regulating trade ? 

1 From the engraving in Moultrie's own book, Memoirs of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, New York, 1802, 2 vols. 



212 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

4. How were the colonists restricted in trade in respect {a) to 
the countries with which trade was permissible, {b) to the 
ships employed, {c) to manufacturing, and {d) to the traffic 



in grain 



5. What happened in spite of these restrictive laws ? 

6. What was a writ of assistance, and what its purpose ? 

7. What was a special search warrant ? 

8. What was a general search warrant ? 

9. What was the point to be decided in the case of the writs 

of assistance ? 
ID. What was the decision, and what things were done as a 
result ? 
Tj. The Need of a Federal Union. 

1. One great difficulty in carrying on the French wars. 

2. An account of Franklin. 

3. Franklin's Plan of Union. 

4. Speculations about the Albany Plan. 

5. The attitude of the people toward this Plan. 

78. The Stamp Act Passed and Repealed. 

1. The kind of government needed by the colonies. 

2. How Parliament sought to establish such a government. 

3. The nature of a stamp tax. 

4. Why a Stamp Act was a novel measure in colonial history. 

5. The principle of taxation in English history. 

6. Why the colonies regarded the stamp tax as dangerous. 

7. Two men in the front of the opposition to this tax. 

8. How the people treated the Stamp Act. 

9. Its repeal, and the reasons for it. 

79. Taxation in England. 

1. How Pitt's friendship for America offended George III. 

2. The representation of the English people in Parliament. 

3. How the representation of the people is kept fair in the 

United States. 

4. How it became unfair in England. 

5. Corrupt practices favored by this unfairness. 

6. The party of Old Whigs. 

7. The Tories, or the party of George III. 

8. The party of New Whigs, and its aims. 

9. Why George III. was so bitter against Pitt. 

10. The attitude of the king towards taxation in America. 

11. The people of England not our enemies. 



Ch. X. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 213 

80. A New Scheme for Taxing America. 

1. The imposition of port duties. 

2. The use proposed for the money thus raised. 

3. The effect of the new measure upon the colonists. 

4. Lord North's relations to the king. 

5. How the colonists met the Townshend acts. 

6. The circular letter and the king's demand. 

7. How the king's demand was treated. 

8. The Cradle of Liberty. 

9. British regulars to enforce the Townshend acts. 
10. Bloodshed, and the withdrawal of the troops. 

81. The Widening of the Breach. 

1. Certain duties repealed, and the reason. 

2. An exception made, and the reason. 

3. Disturbances in North Carolina and Rhode Island. 

4. The salaries of judges in Massachusetts. 

5. Town committees of correspondence. 

6. Colonial committees of correspondence. 

82. The Reception of the Tea Ships. 

1. The duty on tea resisted. 

2. A scheme to overcome this resistance. 

3. The sending of tea ship's, in 1773, a political trick. 

4. How three cities treated the consignees. 

5. The difficulty of the Boston situation. 

6. A great town meeting, and the occasion for it. 

7. An Indian tea party. 

8. The affair not a riot. 

83. Lexington and Concord. 

1. Two of the king's retaliatory acts. 

2. The work of two congresses. 

3. Two objects of the expedition to Lexington and Concord 

4. The beginning of the Revolutionary War. 

5. The Concord fight, and the retreat. 

6. The spreading of the alarm. 
The Battle of Bunker Hill. 

1. British fortresses captured. 

2. The Continental Congress, and its action. 

3. Why the Americans seized Breed's Hill. 

4. The battle of Bunker Hill. 

5. The moral effect of the battle. 

6. The American army and Washington. 



214 THE REVOLUTION. Ch, X. 

7. A final attempt to avoid further bloodshed. 

8. The hiring of foreign troops. 

85. The Invasion of Canada. 

1. What was the object of the invasion? 

2. What route was adopted by Montgomery? 

3. What route was adopted by Arnold ? 

4. Describe the assault upon Quebec. 

5. What went on meanwhile at Boston? 

86. The Declaration of Independence. 

1. Separation from Great Britain at first not expected. 

2. Growth of the sentiment for independence. 

3. Lee's famous motion in Congress. 

4. The Declaration of Independence. 

5. A victory in the South. 



suggestive questions and directions. 
The figures in parenthesis refer to pages in Fiske's The Ameri-\ 
can Revolution, vol. i. 

1. What was the feeling of the colonists before the Revolution 

toward the mother country (2) ? 

2. Why was it natural for the royal governors to irritate the col- 1 

onists (2, 3) ? 

3. What trouble was there in Massachusetts for thirty years over 

the governor's salary (4) ? 

4. What was the British idea of union for the colonies (5) ? 

5. What was the American idea (6) ? 

6. Why is a stamp act a convenient way of raising money ? 

7. What stamp act does the United States enforce to-day? 

8. Tell how money was raised during our Civil War by a stamp 

act. 

9. When Americans objected to being taxed by England, was it 

because they feared they might be taxed too heavily (16, 17)? 

10. How was Patrick Henry's reputation made (18)? 

11. What hand did Patrick Henry have in opposing Enghsh tax 

laws for the colonies (20) ? 

12. Was the War of the Revolution known by that name during its 

progress? When did it become proper to use this name? 
What is an insurrection ? A rebellion ? A revolution ? 

13. Describe Paul Revere's ride. Why has it become so famous? 

Read Longfellow's poem on this theme, and note how far it' 
^ is true to the facts and spirit of history. 



CH. X. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 215 

14. What was the special objection to hireling troops like the 

Hessians? Were these troops to blame for coming to 
America? Who were most to blame for their coming 
(160-162)? Read Chatham's protest against their employ- 
ment. 

15. Show the forbearance of the colonists (r95, 196). 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's TJie American Revolution^ vol. i. : 

1. Sons of Liberty, 23, 24. 

2. The character of George III., 39, 40. 

3. The so-called Boston Massacre, 65-72. 

4. The famous Boston Tea Party, 82-92. 

5. Lord North's five acts for regulating American affairs, 

95-97- 

6. Lexington and Concord, 120-126. 

7. The commander-in-chief of the American army, 133-136. 

8. The battle of Bunker Hill, 136-146. 

9. The army at Cambridge, and its generals, 147-156. 
10. The battle of Fort Moultrie, 198-200. 

From Cooke's Virginia: 

1. Henry, the prophet of revolution, 378-382. 

2. His famous resolutions, 384-387. 

3. Williamsburg, the heart of the rebellion, 396-399. 

4. Virginia and Massachusetts, 415-421. 

5. Was it the first blood of the revolution ? 422-426. 

6. Virginia arming, 427-429. 

7. Lord Dunmore and the colony gunpowder, 430-434. 

8. Dunmore driven from Virginia, 435-437. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 1776-1783. 

87. Fighting for the Control of the Hudson. The 

issue was now squarely joined, and must be fought out. 
The king had pushed things much further than he had 
originally intended, much further than Lord North ap- 
proved ; but now no one could expect Great Britain to 
give up her colonies without a struggle. The Ameri- 
cans also had taken ground from which it was impossi- 
ble to retreat with self-respect. The Declaration of 
Independence was felt by every one to be a bold meas- 
ure. Now that independence was claimed, it remained 
to be seen whether it could be won. 

Here the Americans had one great advantage. They 
were on the defensive ; the British must either conquer 
the United States or give up the case. So long as the 
Americans could keep up their armed resistance, a few 
British victories would not decide the matter. 

There were two ways in which it might be possible 
to conquer the United States. The British tried first 
one way and then the other, and so the war after the 
Declaration of Independence may be divided into two 
periods. The first period was rather more than a year 
and a quarter in length, the second lasted exactly four 
years. 

During the first period, the British tried to conquer 
and hold the line of the Hudson River. This would be 
the most direct and speedy way of settling the busi- 



5 87. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE 



217 



ness. The British had full control of the sea, so that 

it was impossible for American troops to go 

from one state to another by water. So by of the 

holding the Hudson River, the British would 

cut off all communication between New England and 

the rest of the country. 

There were two ways of attacking the Hudson, from 
above and from below ; the British tried both ways at 
once. In the autumn of 1776, General Carleton, with 
his army in boats, under convoy of a stout little fleet, 
came up Lake Champlain to attack Ticonderoga. On 




i BATTERY AND BOWLING GREEN IN I776.I 

)ctober ii, he encountered Benedict Arnold in an ob- 
tinate naval fight off Valcour Island. Arnold was 
•worsted, but escaped with his vessels, and Carleton was 
D badly damaged that he soon turned about and went 
ack to winter quarters at Montreal. 

' But it was at the mouth of the Hudson River that 

i 

^ From the Manual of the Common Council of N'ew York, 1S58, where 
full description of Bowling Green may be found. 



I 



2l8 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



the British struck their heaviest blows. As the city of 
_ . New York stands on an island, it was impossi- 

The city ^ 

of New ble for the Americans to hold it without corn- 
York 

mand of the water. It would, nevertheless, be 

most unwise to surrender it without a struggle. If you 
cannot beat the enemy, it is always worth while in war 
to use up his time and fritter away his energies. No 
general ever understood this better than Washington. 
In order to hold the city of New York, it was necessary 
to hold Brooklyn Heights ; there Putnam had 5,000 
men behind intrenchments, while 4,000 more, under 
Sullivan, guarded the roads approaching the Heights! 
from the south. General Howe had 25,000 men en- 
camped on Staten Is- 
land, and his brother, 
Lord Howe, with a 
resistless fleet, com- 
manded all the waters: 
within reach. 

On the 27th of 
August, Howe at- 
tacked Sullivan with 
20,000 men. With 
his great superiority 
of force he was able 
to surround the Amer 
leans and take more 
than 1,000 prisoners, 
including Genera 

Sullivan. If Howe 
had at once attackec 
the works on Brooklyn Heights, he would probabl) 
have met with a bloody defeat ; but Bunker Hill haci 

^ From Murray's History of the Present War, London, 1780, i. 280. 




SIR WILLIAM HOWE.l 



!ri 



i 87, 8S. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



219 



aught him a lesson, and he determined to besiege the 
ilace instead of assaulting it. When Washing- a skillful 
on perceived this intention, he withdrew the '^^''■^^*- 
rmy, taking it across the East River one dark, foggy 
light, in such boats and 
cows as he could col- 
2ct. This skillful re- 
reat, under the very 
lose of the enemy, was 
wonderful achieve- 
ment. Howe crossed 
he river a few days 
Iter, occupied the city 
i New York, and at- 
Washington's 
at Harlem 
but was de- 
Howe spent 
two months 
n vainly trying to get 
Washington to fight in 

.n unfavorable position. In one battle, at White Plains, 
pctober 29, the British gained a slight advantage at 
'reat cost of life. A little later, November 16, poitwash- 
hey attacked Fort Washington, on the Hud- ington. 
on River, and took it by storm. The American garri- 
!on of 3,000 men were taken prisoners. This disaster 
'/as due entirely to disregard of Washington's orders. 
i!n spite of it, the Americans were still fairly capable of 
'Oldnig their own against the enemy, when a sudden 
reachery in their camp came near bringing down ruin 
pen them. 
88. From Hackensack to Morristown. The highest 

1 From Murray's History of the Frescnt War, ii. 96. 



acked 
entre 
ieights, 
eated. 
he next 




LORD HOWE.l 



220 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI 



officer in the army next to Washington was a British 
Charles adventurer named Charles Lee, who had served 
^^^" in America in the French War, and since then 

had roamed about Europe doing a little fighting and ? 
good deal of scurrilous writing. About the time that 
the tea ships were sent to Boston, Lee came over tc 
America to seek his fortune. He talked so much 
about his military experience that people took him for 

a great general. He 
tried to get Con- 
gress to appoint him 
to the chief com- 
mand of the army, 
and was much dis 
gusted at having td 
serve under Wash 
ington. After the 
capture of Forli 
Washington, in No. 
vember, i yjG, Lee 
was in command oi 
half the army, about 
7,000 men, at North 
castle, on the eas 
side of the Hudson 
while Washington 
with the other half, was at Hackensack, on the wes 
side. It soon became apparent that Howe intended t( 
move against Philadelphia. Then Washington orderec 
Lee to cross the river and join him, so that he migh 
face the enemy with his full force of 14,000. Lee dis 
obeyed, and wrote letters to several prominent person; 
slandering Washington. | 

1 From Murray's History of the Present War, i. 478. 




CHARLES LEE. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



221 



Lee's disobedience made it necessary for Washington 
retreat through New Jersey and cross the Delaware 
liver into Penn- 
ylvania. When 
:verybody con- 
idered Washing- 
on ruined, Lee 
tiarched his own 
orce to Morris- 
own, apparently 
conduct a cam- 
>aign on his own 
ccount. But he 
lad scarcely ar- 
ived there when 
, part}^ of British 
Iragoons caught 
lim in his night- 
;own and slippers, 
,t a tavern outside 
lis army lines, and 
arried him away 

prisoner. He 
/as taken to New 
fork and con- 
|ned in the City Hall. He then turned traitor to the 
Vmerican cause, and gave General Howe all the informa- 
ion in his power, to help him to overcome General Wash 
•igton. Nobody knew about this treason of Charles 
.ee till long afterward ; the papers which prove it were 
iscovered a few years ago in England, in the private 
brary of Howe's secretary, where they had lain undis- 
irbed for nearly ninety years. 

The capture of Lee left Sullivan in command of his 




THE CENTRAL FIELD OF WAR, 1776-77. 



222 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



force, and Sullivan marched it hastily to Washington's 
assistance. Thus reinforced in the nick of time, Wash- 
ington was able to strike back at the enemy. On 
Christmas night, he crossed the Delaware with 2,500 
men, marched nine miles in a blinding snowstorm, and 
Battle of surprised and broke the British centre at Tren- 
Trenton. ^Qn, taking 1,000 prisoners. Lord Cornwallis, 
who thought the war was over, and had sent his trunks 
on board ship, intending to return to England, now came 
in haste to attack Washington, who had brought his full 
force back into New Jersey. In the early morning of 
January 3, by a wonderful manoeuvre, Washington 
Battle of marched his army around Cornwallis's flank, 
Princeton, crushed his rear in a sharp fight at Princeton,, 
and then planted himself upon the heights of Morristown. 
This position, by threatening the British line of supplies, 

kept them from crossing 
New Jersey to take Phila-: 
delphia, and for the next 
five months they stayed' 
quietly in New York. 1 

The result of the fight>i 
ing and manoeuvring' 
from Long Island to Mor- 
ristown showed the world 
that the Americans were, 
commanded by military 
genius of the highest 
order. The French were 
beginning to think it 
might be worth their while to help us, and thus get re-' 
venged upon the British -for the last war. One brilliant 
young Frenchman, not yet twenty years old, the Marquis' 

^ From the London Magazine, June, 1781. 




LORD CORNWALLIS.l 



5§ 88, 89. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



223 



Lafayette. 



Je Lafayette, could not wait for his own government to 
ict, but fitted up a ship at his own expense, 
md, coming to America, offered his services to 
Ilongress as a vokmteer without pay. Other European 
officers who rendered eminent services to the Ameri- 
:an cause were the 
German Kalb and 
the two noble Poles, 
Kosciuszko and Pu- 
laski. 

89. The Second 
A.ttempt to Con- 
g[uer New York. 
The British plan, 
for the summer of 
1777, was to move 
with three armies 
at once, as fol- 
lows : (i) A force 



of about 9,000 men 
was to come down 




MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE.' 



from Canada by way of Lake Champlain, and move upon 
Albany ; the command of this movement was ^^^^^ 

ntrusted to General John Burgoyne, an excel- British 

1 11 r 1 • • f ^ armies. 

lent gentleman, who, but for his misiortunes, 
vould have been remembered as a play writer rather 
;han as a soldier. (2) A force of about 2,000 men, under 
Zolonel Barry St. Leger, was to ascend the St. Lawrence 
o Lake Ontario, then land at Oswego, and come down 
he Mohawk valley. Sir William Johnson had lately 
lied, but his son, Sir John Johnson, had great influence 
^ith the Six Nations. The object of St. Leger's expe- 
ition was to enlist the aid of these Tories and Indians, 

^ From Etrennes Nationales, 1790. 



224 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



- iJS% 




JOHN BURGOYNE.l 



crush out all opposition, 
and move on to unite | 
with Burgoyne. (3) A 
force of not less than 
18,000 men, under 
Howe, was to move up 
the Hudson River and 
unite with Burgoyne. 
Should Washington fol- 
low, the concentrated 
British force might be 
expected to crush him. 

In this plan, Howe's 
task was comparatively 
safe, because he could 
always depend upon his ships for supplies. But for Bur- 
goyne and St. Leger 
it was a very danger- 
ous business, because 
they were required to 
plunge through the 
depths of the wilder- 
ness with the risk of 
having their supplies 
cut off. After Bur- 
goyne should pass Fort 
Edward on the Hud- 
son, he was sure to 
be in extreme peril 
until he should meet 

Howe with the force ^"'"p Schuyler.^ 

from below. But the British underestimated the danger. 

1 From Stone's Campaign of Lieut.-Gen. yohn Burgoyne. 
* From the Life of Hamilton, by J. C. Hamilton. 




§89. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 225 

On the 5th of July, Burgoyne compelled the Ameri- 
cans to evacuate Ticonderoga, and two days later a 
detachment of his army defeated them in a severe bat- 
tle at Hubbardton. These misfortunes caused great 
alarm throughout the country, but as Burgoyne ad- 
vanced toward Fort Edward his difficulties began. The 
Americans were commanded 
by Philip Schuyler, a skillful 
general and one of the noblest 
of patriots. By felling trees 
and otherwise obstructing the 
enemy's march, Schuyler so 
delayed him that he did not 
reach Fort Edward till the 
end of July. By that time, 
several hundred New Ens:- 
land yeomanry were collected 
in the Green Mountains with 
the village of Ben- „ , , 

* Battle of 

nington as a depot Benning- 
of supplies. Bur- 
goyne sent out a force of 
1,000 men to capture these 
supplies. The force con- 
sisted chiefly of Germans, 
utterly ignorant of the coun- 
try as well as of American 
methods of warfare. On 
the 1 6th of August, they 

were entrapped, surrounded, and captured by the saga- 
cious Colonel John Stark. About 200 Germans were 
killed and wounded, about 70 returned to Burgoyne, and 

^ After a silhouette given in Rev. Albert Tyler's Bentiington, the Battle, 
^777 > Centennial Celebration, iSjj. 




226 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



all the rest were 
taken prisoners, 
with all their 
guns and stores. 
The American 
loss was 14 killed 
and 42 wounded. 
This brilliant vic- 
tory prepared the 
Americans to 
send forces into 
Burgoyne's rear 
and cut off his 
communications 
with Lake Cham- 
plain. 

90. St. Leger's 
Army in the For- 
est. Meanwhile, 
St. Leger's little 
J army was having 

strange and wild adventures in the primeval forest. In 
what is now Oneida County, near the site of Rome, there 
was a stronghold called Fort Stanwix. St. Leger, ad- 
vancing from Oswego, laid siege to this fort, on the 3d 
of August. On the 6th, a force of 800 militia, led by 
General Nicholas Herkimer, was marching to relieve the 




^^f./Jrt^^-?^ 



1 After a picture belonging to the Earl of Warwick, painted by G. 
Romney. The spelling Brandt is incorrect. His Indian name, as he 
wrote it,, was Thayendanegea, pronounced Ta-yen-da-naw'-ga. He was 
the most remarkable Indian known in history. He was a full-blood 
Mohawk, not a half-breed as is sometimes incorrectly said. He was well 
educated, a devout member of the Episcopal Church, and translated the 
Prayer Book and parts of the New Testament into the Mohawk language. 
The combination of missionary and war-chief in him was quite curious. 



§ 90. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 22/ 

fort, when, in a deep ravine near Oriskany, they fell 
into an ambush prepared by the great Mohawk Battle of 
chieftain, Joseph Brant. The battle which en- o^^^any. 
sued was the fiercest and most obstinate battle in the 
Revolutionary War. Each side could claim the victory. 
Herkimer, mortally wounded, drove the enemy away, 
but was obliged to retreat from the scene. That same 
day, the garrison at Fort Stanwix made a sortie and 
sacked a part of St. Leger's camp, capturing five Brit- 
ish flags. They hoisted these flags upside down over 
their fort and raised above them a rude flag made of 
scraps of a blue jacket and a white shirt ^^^ 
with some bits of red flannel. Congress had national 
in June adopted the national banner of stars 
and stripes, and this was the first time it was ever 
hoisted. 

When the news of Oriskany reached General Schuy- 
ler, he sent Arnold with 1,200 men to relieve Fort Stan- 
wix. Arnold caused reports to be sent ahead of him that 
Burgoyne was totally defeated, and that a great Ameri- 
can force was coming against St. Leger. On August 
22, these rumors produced a panic in the British camp, 
and St. Leger hastily retreated to Lake Ontario. This 
was a heavy blow to Burgoyne. All his hopes of aid from 
the Tories of the Mohawk valley were completely frus- 
trated, while Schuyler's force in front of him was daily 
increased by fresh bands of armed yeomanry. 

Some New England delegates in Congress cherished a 
mean grudge against Schuyler, and succeeded Horatio 
in removing him from command and put- ^^*^^" 
ting Horatio Gates in his place. Gates was a vain and 
silly person, with no military ability ; but when he took 
command, August 19, Burgoyne's fate was already 
almost settled. His communications with Canada were 



228 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI 



about to be cut by the Vermont forces, and then no- 
thing could save him except a British army coming up 
the Hudson River. 




EVOLUTION OF THE AMERICAN FLAG.l 

1 The flag on the right is the British union jack, a combination of the 
English red cross of St. George with the Scottish white cross of St. 
Andrew, upon a blue ground. The British ensign is a plain red flag with 
this union jack in the corner. 

The flag on the left is the one used by General Washington, at Cam- 
bridge, in January, 1776, and for a year or more afterward. It is like the 
British ensign except that thirteen red and white stripes are substituted 
for the solid red of the former. 

The flag at the top was adopted by Congress in June, 1777. A union 
of thirteen white stars in a circle on a blue ground is substituted for the 
British union. The present American flag differs from this in the num- 
ber of stars ; one has been added for each new state, so that there are 
now forty-five. 

Below this flag are shown the arms of the Washington family, with three 
red stars and two red bars on a white ground, and a Latin motto which 
means "The event justifies the deed." It has been supposed by some 
writers that the idea of the stars and stripes in the American flag was 
derived from this coat-of-arms ; but there seems to be no evidence in 
support of this opinion. 



5 9»- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



229 



91. Aid for Burgoyne Prevented by Washington. 

It was Washington who prevented this. General Howe 
started in June to take Philadelphia, expecting to be 
able to do that, and also to give all needful aid to Bur- 
goyne. But Washington, by skillful manoeuvres, pre- 
vented Howe from crossing New Jersey, and obliged 
him to go by sea. Various delays thus occa- 

'=' •' ■' Washing- 

sioned used up the whole summer. After ton delays 
Howe had sailed up Chesapeake Bay, he 

marched northward 
with 18,000 men, as 
far as the Brandywine 
Creek, where he en- 
countered Washing- 
ton, with 11,000, on 
the nth of Septem- 
ber. In the battle on 
that day, Washington 
was obliged to retire 
from the field, but the 
defeat was so slight 
that he was able to 
detain Howe for a fort- 
night on the march of 
only twenty-six miles 
to Philadelphia. The 
British entered that 
city on the 26th, and 
presently encamped at 
Germantown, where 
Washington attacked 
them, on the 4th of 
October, at daybreak, hoping to push their army against 
the Schuylkill River and destroy it. The daring scheme 




burgoyne's campaign, 1777. 



230 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XL 

almost succeeded, but victory was turned into defeat by 
a sudden panic among the Americans, caused by a sad 
accident : it was a foggy morning, and one American 
battalion fired into another by mistake. 

92. The Surrender of Burgoyne. Washington 
made so much trouble for Howe that the latter had 
to get more troops from New York, and so it was im- 
possible to send any help to Burgoyne. At length, a 
new force of 3,000 men, arriving from England, was 
sent up the Hudson River on the same day that the 
battle of Germantown was fought. It was too late to 
save Burgoyne. On September 13, that general had 
crossed the Hudson; on the 19th, he tried to turn the 
American position at Bemis Heights, but Arnold at- 
tacked him at Freeman's Farm near by, and a desperate 
but indecisive battle was fought there. Two days later, 
Burgoyne's communications with Lake Champlain were 
cut, and soon his men were suffering from hunger. On 
the 7th of October, he risked another battle, and was 
totally defeated by Arnold, whose leg was broken by a 
musket ball in the moment of victory. In neither of 
these two battles did Gates take any real part. Bur- 
goyne retreated upon Saratoga, where he found himself 
surrounded, and, on the 17th, he surrendered what was 
left of his army, nearly 6,000 men, to General Gates. 

93. The Results of Burgoyne's Surrender. The 
surrender of Burgoyne had immense results. Lord 
North insisted upon conciliating the Americans and 
yielding every point to them except independence. 
People in England insisted upon having Lord Chatham 
for prime minister, and the king would probably have 
Efforts for been compelled to take him, but Chatham sud- 
peace. dculy died. Whether he could have succeeded 
in renewing the friendly union between Great Britain 



§§93,94- THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 23 1 

and America is doubtful. Certainly no other English- 
man was equal to such a task. Lord North sent com- 
missioners to America to negotiate a treaty of peace. 
But meanwhile, for more than a year, Benjamin Frank- 
lin had been busy at the French court, soliciting aid 
and alliance ; and now, as soon as France felt that 
there was any danger of a reconciliation between Great 
Britain and America, she recognized the independence 
of the United States, and presently sent a fleet to help 
us. The treaty was signed February 6, 1778, 
and in it the Americans bound themselves to French 
accept no terms of peace until Great Britain 
should recognize the independence of the United 
States. 

This French alliance was the beginning of European 
complications which ended in bringing Spain and Hol- 
land into the war against George III., but its immediate 
results in America were not remarkable. In the spring 
of 1778, great hopes were entertained. The vaiiey 
winter, which Washington's army spent at ^°''S®- 
Valley Forge, had been one of privation and suffering. 
There had been an intrigue against Washington on the 
part of several officers and politicians who tried to hurt 
his feelings and goad him into resigning his command, 
in which case they intended to put the weak-minded 
Gates in his place. This conspiracy, known from the 
name of one of the plotters as the " Conway Cabal," 
was exposed in such a way as to make them all ridicu- 
lous and to strengthen people's confidence in Wash- 
ington. 

94. Cessation of Active Operations in the North. 
In the spring, Howe \vent- home to England, and Sir 
Henry Clinton succeeded him. Hearing of the ap- 
proach of the French fleet, Clinton evacuated Philadel- 



232 



THE REVOLUTION. 



CH.XL 



Battle of 
Mon- 
mouth. 

chief. 



phia and retired to New York. Washington pursued 
him across New Jersey. His army had been thoroughly 
drilled at Valley Forge by the Baron von Steuben, a 
very able Prussian officer who had come over to help 
us. With this improved army, Washington overtook 
the enemy at Monmouth and ordered an attack. But, 
unfortunately, the mischief-maker, Charles 
Lee, had been exchanged, and had returned to 
his command just in time to make more mis- 
He spoiled Washington's plan by making a 

shameful and dis- 
orderly retreat just 
at the critical mo- 
ment. For this he 
was tried by court- 
martial ; at first he 
was suspended from 
command, then ex- 
pelled from the army. 
When the French 
fleet arrived, Wash- 
ington hoped to be 
able to take the city 
of New York, but 
some of the ships 
drew too much water 
to cross the bar, so this scheme had to be abandoned. 
The only other place occupied by a large British force 
was Newport, and the fleet accompanied Sullivan's land 
forces in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Newport. 
Little more was done in the northern states between 
the regular armies. In the summer of 1779, Clinton 
sent marauding expeditions into Connecticut in order 

1 From Du Simitiere's Thirteen Portraits, London, 1783. 




BARON VON STEUBEN.l 



§§ 94, 95- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



233 




to draw Washington's attention away from the Hudson 
River. But Washington, who always did what the 
enemy did not expect, pro- 
tected Connecticut by storm- 
ing the British works stony 
at Stony Point. The ^°'"'- 
assault, which was one of the 
most brilliant in military his- 
tory, was conducted by An- 
thony Wayne. The -loss of 
this fort made Clinton call 
back his marauders without 
delay. 

95. Conflicts on the Fron- 
tier and at Sea. In the 
years 1778 and 1779, there anthony wayne.i 

was constant warfare with Tories and Indians on the 
frontier. In July, 1778, these enemies spread death and 
desolation through the beautiful valley of Wyoming, in 
Pennsylvania. Many other atrocities were committed, 

and the next year an 
army under Sullivan 
invaded the country 
of the Six Nations, 
defeated the Tories 
and Indians with great 
slaughter, and burned 
more than forty vil- 
lages. The Six Na- 
tions never recovered 

CAMPAIGN OF GEORGE ROGERS CLARK. f^.^^ ^^-^ ^J^^^^ 

In the Southwest, the famous hunter, Daniel Boone, 
ad begun the settlement of Kentucky, while James Rob- 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. i. 




234 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



ertson was moving into Tennessee, and there was much 
Frontier fighting with the tribes in those parts. In 
troubles. j^^g^ Colonel Hamilton, the British com- 
mander at Detroit, tried to stir up all the western 

tribes to a concerted attack 
upon the frontier. A 
young Virginian, George 
Rogers Clark, hearing of 
this, undertook to carry the 
war into the enemy's coun- 
try. In two romantic and 
masterly campaigns, in 
1778-79, he defeated and 
captured Hamilton at Vin- 
cennes, and ended by con- 
quering and holding the 
whole country north of the 
Ohio River, from the Alle- 
ghanies to the Mississippi. 
The year 1779 was also famous for the exploits of 
our bold naval captain, Paul Jones, who burned the ship- 
ping in British ports, sailed into the Frith of 
Forth and threatened Edinburgh, and finally 
captured two British war vessels off Flamborough Head, 
in one of the most desperate sea fights on record. 

96. The Second Way of Conquering the Country. 
In this last period of the war, after Burgoyne's sur- 
render, the British tried a new way of conquering the 
United States. Instead of aiming at the centre, they 
went down to the extreme South, and tried cutting off 
one state after another. They conquered Georgia and 
reinstated the royal governor there. In the autumn of 

1 After the medal struck in his honor by the United States Congress, 
to commemorate his victory over the Serapis. 




PAUL JONES.l 



Paul Jones. 



§§ 96, 97- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



235 



1779, General Lincoln, aided by the French fleet, tried 
to recapture Savannah, but was defeated with great 
slaughter. The next spring. Sir Henry Clinton con- 
ducted an expedition against Charleston, and Fighting in 
captured the city with Lincoln and his whole *^^ ^°^^^' 
army. After this terrible blow, Clinton returned to 
New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis in command, and 
South Carolina was soon overcome by the British. 
With great exertions a new American army was col- 
lected in North Carolina, but the command of it, un- 
fortunately, was given to Gates, and, on the i6th of 
August, Cornwallis nearly destroyed it at Camden. It 
was, perhaps, the worst defeat ever inflicted upon an 
American army. After this, the only resistance to the 
British in South Carolina was carried on by the brave 
partisan leaders, such as Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. 
Irregular warfare of a cruel sort went on between Whigs 
and Tories, and robbery and 
murder were frequent. 

97. The Gloomiest Time 
of the War. This summer 
of 1780 was the gloomiest 
time in the whole course of 
the war. Because Congress 
could not tax the people, 
and could not get enough 
money from the states by 
asking for it, there was 
■great difficulty in carrying 
on the war. Some money 
'was borrowed from France 

and Holland, but Congress was also obliged to issue its 
notes, or promises to pay. Such notes, when issued by 

1 From Headley's IVashbt^ton and his Generals,, vol. ii. 




FRANCIS MARION.l 



236 



THE REVOLUTION, 



Ch. XI 



a government, are commonly called paper money. So 
long as government redeems them in gold they are as 
good as money. If government "suspends," or post- 
pones, giving gold for them on demand, their value 
falls ; that is, a man will give more for a gold dollar than 
a paper dollar. If people believe that government will be 
Poor able to redeem its notes, their value falls but 

money. slightly ; if they cease to have such confidence, 
the value falls terribly. Such fluctuations in the value 
of currency are very destructive to business, and always 
produce poverty and misery. It is probable that during 



BTOlMMgafifl 



Sixtji^ottays. No^if44> 



^£f Bill entifle^ 
Bearer to recel'ue 
llSixty Spanifh mill- 
ed D o l l a r s, or 
i'/ie Value fl^ersof in 
.^GoIdc^rSilvec ac- 
arrdkg to a Kdok}' 
tion ha^ed ^ (oon- 

^'Se/i(',26t/h 1778 



A/H/J 




iiiiiimi xn) i:o]triuiiiK):g 



CONTINENTAL MONEY.l 



the Revolutionary War more damage was done by the 
paper currency than by all other causes put together. 
In the summer of 1780, it became worthless. It took 



^ Facsimile, full size, of a note now in the possession of Harvard Uni 
versity Library. 



i§ 97, 98- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



237 



1^150 in Continental currency to buy a bushel of corn, 
and an ordinary suit of clothes cost ;^2,ooo. Then peo- 
ple refused to take it ; they preferred to take their pay 
in sheep or plows, in jugs of rum, or kegs of salt pork, 
or whatever they could get. It thus became almost im- 
possible to pay soldiers, or to clothe and feed them 
properly and supply them with powder and ball. There 
were times when, except for the wonderful ability of the 
financier, Robert Morris, the war could not have been 
carried on. 

98. The Treason of Arnold. Benedict Arnold had 
for some time felt himself ill treated by Congress. He 
was one of our bravest 
and ablest generals, 
but his moral nature 
was weak. In 1778, 
having been put in 
command of Philadel- 
phia, he married a 
Tory lady, and his po- 
litical sympathies be- 
gan to change. He 
got into difficulties 
and was sentenced to 
be reprimanded (Janu- 
ary, 1780). Revenge- 
ful feelings led him to 
entertain a scheme for 
giving up the Hudson River to the enemy. In July, 
1780, he asked Washington for the command of the 
great fortress at West Point, and obtained it. The West 
Then he made arrangements for surrendering ^°'"* p^°** 
it to Sir Henry Clinton. In September, the British 
adjutant-general. Major John Andr6, had an interview 

1 From Arnold's Life of Arnold. 




BENEDICT ARNOLD.! 



I 



238 



THE REVOLUTION, 



Ch. XI 




MAJOR ANDRE. 1 



with Arnold near Stony 
Point. On his way back to 
New York, Andre was 
stopped and searched by 
three yeomen near Tarry- 
town, and, as suspicious 
looking papers in Arnold's 
handwriting were found in 
his stockings, they arrested 
him for a spy. These pa- 
pers revealed the plot. Ar- 
nold received information 
in time to escape and fly 
to the British in New 
York. Andre was tried by 
a military commission and hanged. 

99. Victories in the South. The old adage that 
"it is always darkest 
just before dawn " was 
now illustrated. Only 
five days after the exe- 
cution of Andre, there 
was a great American 
victory at the South. 
A force of i,ioo Brit- 
ish and Tories pene- 
trated too far into the 
mountains, and were 
met by a swarm of 
backwoodsmen. In the 
battle of King's Moun- 
tain, October 7, all general greene.^ 

1 From a portrait by himself. 

3 After a pliotograph of a painting. 




99. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



239 



the British who were not killed or wounded were taken 
prisoners. This was the beginning of a se- Nathanael 
ries of victories. A new army was raised for ^'■^^"^• 
the South, p,nd put under command of Nathanael Greene, 
a general scarcely second to Washington himself. 

Under Greene were three Virginians of great ability, 
— Daniel Morgan ; William Washington, a distant cousin 
of the commander-in-chief; and Henry Lee, familiarly 
known as " Light-horse Harry," father of the famous 
Confederate general, Robert Edward Lee. 

The most famous British commander of light-armed 
troops was Banastre Tarleton. On the 17th of January, 
1 78 1, in the battle of the Cowpens, Tarleton was de- 
feated by Morgan. It was a wonderful piece of tactics. 
With only 900 men, in open field Morgan surrounded 
and nearly annihilated 
a superior force. The 
British lost 230 in killed 
and wounded, 600 prison- 
ers, and all their guns. 
Tarleton escaped with 
270 men. The Ameri- 
cans lost twelve killed 
and sixty-one wounded. 

This was the prelude 
to a game of strategy in 
which Greene led Corn- 
wallis on a chase across 
North Carolina, and gave 
him battle at Guilford, on March 15. At nightfall, the 
British held the field, but were so badly cut a game of 
up that they presently withdrew into Virginia, ^^'^^^^sr- 
while Greene returned to South Carolina. His next 




DANIEL MORGAN.l 



1 After a sketch by Trumbull. 



240 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI 



two battles — Hobkirk's Hill, April 25, and Eutaw 
Springs, September 8 — were not victories, but in each 
case he gained the object for which the battle was 
fought.. Between those two dates he had pleared the 
British out of South Carolina, except in Charleston, 
where they remained shut up under cover of their ships. 

100. The Sur- 
render of Corn- 
wallis. Corn- 

wallis, in Virginia, 
was reinforced, 
and had a little 
campaign against 
Lafayette. At the 
end of July, Corn- 
wallis was at York- 
town with 7,000 
men. Up to this 
time the British 
had always been 
safe at the water's 
edge, because they 
controlled the sea. 
Now all this was to 
be changed by the arrival of a great French fleet com- 
manded by Count de Grasse. In August, Washington 
learned that he could have the aid of this fleet on the 
, , Viro;inia coast, and at once he moved with 

Washing- => ' 

ton's skill- 6,000 men (4,000 of them Frenchmen under 
pan. (^Qm-^^ Rochambeau) from the Hudson River 
to Chesapeake Bay. It was a swift and skillful move- 
ment. Clinton did not suspect its purpose till Wash- 
ington was beyond Philadelphia. Then he made a weak 
attempt at a diversion by sending the traitor Arnold 




SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS IN THE REVOLUTION. 



$ 100. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



241 




THE SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS.l 

to burn New London. That wretched performance was 
of no use. Washington went straight at his mark, and, 
by the last of September, had 16,000 men in front of 
Cornwallis at Yorktown, while the great French fleet 
closed in behind and prevented escape. On the 19th 
of October, the British army surrendered. 



topics and questions. 

87. Fighting for the Control of the Hudson. 

1. Why could neither party to the war now retreat.? 

2. What advantage did the Americans have ? 

3. Why did the British seek to control the Hudson ? 

4. What attack did they make on the Hudson 
above ? 

5. Why did Washington try to hold New York city ? 

6. What measures did he adopt to do so ? 

7. What did the British do to dislodge him ? 

8. Describe Washington's retreat. 

^ From a painting by Trumbull in the Capitol at Washington. 



from 



242 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XL 

9. What further attempts did Howe make to defeat Wash 

ington ? 
ID. What disaster occurred at Fort Washington? 

88. From Hackensack to Morristown. 

I. An account of Charles Lee. 

z Lee's disobedience of Washington's orders. 

3. His capture and treason. 

4. The surprise of the British at Trenton. 

5. Cornwallis out-manoeuvred at Princeton. 

6. The strong position at Morristown. 

7. What the campaign showed to the world. 

8. Aid from Lafayette. 

89. The Second Attempt to Conquer New York. 

1. The plan of Burgoyne's army. 

2. The plan of St. Leger's army. 

3. The plan of Howe's army. 

4. The comparative risks of these plans. 

5. Burgoyne's success at first. 

6. The growing difficulties of Burgoyne's situatioa 

7. The American victory at Bennington. 

90. St. Leger's Army in the Forest. 

1. The siege of Fort Stanwix. 

2. The Mohawk ambush at Oriskany. 

3. The stars and stripes at Fort Stanwix. 

4. The relief of the besieged Americans. 

5. Gates substituted for Schuyler. 

91. Aid for Burgoyne Prevented by Washington 

1. Howe's scheme about Philadelphia. 

2. The scheme delayed by Washington. 

3. The battle of the Brandywine. 

4. The battle of Germantown. 

92. The Surrender of Burgoyne. 

1. Aid for Burgoyne too late. 

2. The battle of Freeman's Farm. 

3. The second battle of Freeman's Farm. 

4. The surrender. 

93. The Results of Burgoyne's Surrender. 

1. Efforts for peace in England. 

2. The French alliance. 

3. The winter at Valley Forge. 

4. The " Conway Cabal." 



Ch. XI. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 243 

94. Cessation of Active Operations in the North. 

1. The evacuation of Philadelphia. 

2. The drill at Valley Forge. , 

3. Lee at Monmouth. 

4. Unsuccessful attempts with the French fleet. 

5. The storming of Stony Point, and its object. 

95. Conflicts on the Frontier and at Sea. 

1. The valley of Wyoming desolated. 

2. Sullivan's invasion of the country of the Six Nations. 

3. Kentucky and Tennessee. 

4. Clark's campaigns, and their object. 

5. Paul Jones in British waters. 

96. The Second Way of Conquering the Country. 

1. The nature of this second way. 

2. The campaign in Georgia. 

3. The capture of Charleston and of Lincoln's army. 

4. A new army and its fate at Camden. 

5. Partisan warfare in South Carolina. 

97. The Gloomiest Time of the War, 

1 . Why was it hard for Congress to get money .'' 

2. What was the nature of the paper money issued r 

3. When is such money good ? 

4. When does it fall in value ? 

5. Speak of the damage it did in the Revolutionary War 

6. Illustrate its worthlessness in 17S0. 
98 The Treason of Arnold. 

1. Some causes for his change of feeling. 

2. His plot to surrender West Point. 

3. The plot discovered. 

4. What befell Arnold and Andrd. 
99. Victories in the South. 

1. The battle of King's Mountain. 

2. Greene and his generals. 

3. Tarleton's defeat at the Cowpens. 

4. Greene's campaign, and what it accomplished, 
too. The Surrender of Cornwallis. 

1. Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

2. The British no longer safe at the water's edge 

3. Washington's skillful movement. 

4. Clinton's diversion. 

5. The siege and the surrender. 



244 "T^E REVOLUTION. Ch. XL 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Read the Declaration of Independence, and consider the follow- 

ing questions and suggestions : 

a. Why was the Declaration made? 

b. It says all men are created equal. Is this true? 

c. What unalienable rights does it claim for all men ? Why 
are such rights called unalienable? Is it consistent for 
people to claim such rights, and, at the same time, to thrust 
men into prison or to hang them ? 

d. From what source are the powers of government said to 
be derived? Has everybody really given his consent to the 
government exercised over him? Do minorities living 
under laws and rulers not acceptable to them give such con- 
sent as the Declaration mentions? 

e. Mention some of the charges made against the king of 
England. It is a valuable exercise to support some of these 
charges by facts of history, with places, dates, and circum- 
stances. 

f. What pledge did the signers make ? Did they keep 
their pledges ? 

2. What was the evidence of Charles Lee's treason? (See Fiske's 

The Ainerican Revohitiott, i. 301-303.) 

3. Describe some of the effects in England of Burgoyne's surren- 

der. (See Fiske's The Afnerica?i Revolution, ii.) 

a. The consternation and differences of opinion that pre- 

vailed, 4-7. 

b. Lord North's political summersault, 7-9. 

c. The alliance of France with the United States, 9-1 1. 

d. Chatham the only hope of England, 1 2-22. 

e. Efforts for peace unavailing, 22-24. 

4. In the chapter entitled "War on the Ocean," Fiske's The Anier- 

icati Revohition^ ii., find answers to the following questions: 

a. What right of search did the British claim ? 

b. What defense of this right did the British urge ? 

c. What is meant by the doctrine that free ships make free 

goods ? 

d. How came this doctrine to triumph at last ? 

e. Show how wise the doctrine is. 

5. How many stars and stripes belong to our national banner 

to-day ? What changes has the banner undergone since its 



Ch. XI. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 245 

adoption .'' What is a national flag for ? What is the use 
of having it float over the sclioolhouses of the land ? 

6. Why did Benedict Arnold turn traitor? Was he a traitor from 

the British point of view before he became one from the 
American ? 

7. Was Andre's execution justifiable ? 

8. What proofs of greatness did Washington give during the Rev- 

olution .'' 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The A7nerican Revolution, i. : 

1. Burgoyne in the wilderness, 268-274. 

2. Jenny McCrea and Burgoyne's Indian allies, 275-280. 

3. An army of regulars annihilated by farmers, 280-285. 

4. The terrible battle of Oriskany, 285-292. 

5. How one man put an army to flight, 293-296. 

6. Burgoyne's army after the surrender, 336-344. 
From Fiske's The American Revolution, ii. : 

1. Sufferings of the troops at Valley Forge, 28, 29. 

2. Steuben as a drillmaster, 53-56. 

3. Lee's treachery at Monmouth, 59-71. 

4. A remarkable Mohawk, 82-85. 

5. The massacre at Wyoming, 85-89. 

6. The wilderness beyond the Alleghanies, 94-96. 

7. Clark's conquest of the northwestern territory, 104-108. 

8. Paul Jones and the Bon Homme Richard, 1 21-130. 

9. Sumter and Marion, 183, 184. 

10. Evils of the paper currency, 197-200. 

11. The treason of Arnold, and its exposure, 215-239. 

12. The sad condition of the army in 1780, 239-243. 

13. The victory of King's Mountain, 244-248. 

14. Greene's superb strategy, 250-268. 

15. Washington's audacious scheme, 273-278. 

16. The end at Yorktown, 278-283. 

17. The news in the United States and England, 285, 286. 






CHAPTER XII. 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 1783-1789. 

101. Drifting toward Anarchy. When Lord North, 
at his office in London, heard the dismal news from Vir- 
ginia, he walked up and down the room, wringing his 
hands and crying, " O God, it is all over! " Yorktown 
was indeed decisive. In the course of the winter the 




MOUNT V1-. 



British lost Georgia. The embers of Indian warfare 
still smouldered on the border, but the great 
War for Independence was really at an end. 

.The treaty of peace was finally signed at Paris, Sept em- 



Treaty of 

Paris. 



§ loi. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 247 

ber 3, 1783. On November 25, the British troops sailed 
away from New York, and Washington resigned his 
commission and went home to Mount Vernon in time to 
spend Christmas there. 

By the treaty — which was negotiated on our part by 
Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams — the 
independent United States extended from the Atlantic 
coast to the Mississippi River. Florida (which then 
included parts of Alabama and Mississippi) was given 
back by Great Britain to Spain ; and Spain continued 
to hold the Louisiana territory. 

Peace was far from bringing safety and contentment 
to the United States. The same difficulty which had led 
to the Revolutionary War — want of a national govern- 
ment — still existed. During the war, the thirteen states 
had agreed upon a kind of constitution which they 
called Articles of Confederation, but they were afraid of 
conferring too much power upon Congress, lest it should 
encroach upon the state governments and swal- ,„ , 

'■ ° _ Weakness 

low them up. So no power of taxation was of Con- 
given to Congress, and, as it had no money, it ^^^^^' 
was hard for it to preserve either dignity or authority. 
For want of pay the army became troublesome. In 
January, 1781, there had been a mutiny of Pennsyl- 
/ania and New Jersey troops which at one mo- Troubles 
Tient looked very serious. In the spring of ^rmV*^^ 
(782, some of the officers, disgusted with the '781-83. 
vant of efficiency in the government, seem to have en- 
ertained a scheme for making Washington king : but 
A^ashington met the suggestion with a stern rebuke, 
n March, 1783, inflammatory appeals were made to the 
)fficers at the headquarters of the army at Newburgh. 
t seems to have been intended that the army should 
•verawe Congress, and seize upon the government until 



248 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XIL 

the delinquent states should contribute the money 
needed for satisfying the soldiers and other public cred- 
itors. An eloquent speech from Washington prevailed 
upon the officers to reject and condemn this scheme. 

On the 19th of April, 1783, the eighth anniversary of 
Lexington, the cessation of hostilities was formally pro- 
claimed, and the soldiers were allowed to go home on 
furloughs. The army was virtually disbanded. There 
were some who thought that this ought not to be done 
while the British forces still remained in New York ; but 
Congress was afraid of the army and quite ready to see 
it scattered. On the 21st of June, Congress was driven 
from Philadelphia by a small band of drunken soldiers 
clamorous for pay. It was impossible for Congress to 
get money. Of the Continental taxes assessed in 1783, 
only one fifth part had been paid by the middle of 1785. 
After peace was piade, France had no longer any end 
to gain by lending us money, and European bankers, 
as well as European governments, regarded American 
credit as dead. 

There was a double provision of the treaty which 
could not be carried out because of the weakness of 
Congress. It had been agreed that Congress should 
Congress rcqucst the state governments to repeal vari- 
fuifiuhe° ous laws which they had made from time to 
treaty. time, Confiscating the property of Tories and 
hindering the collection of private debts due from Amer- ; 
ican to British merchants. Congress did make such 
a request, but it was not heeded. The laws hindering 
the payment of debts were not repealed ; and as for 
the Tories, they were so badly treated that between 
1783 and 1785 more than 100,000 left the country. 
Those from the southern states went mostly to Flor- 
ida and the Bahamas ; those from the north made the; 



§ loi. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 249 

beginnings of the Canadian states of Ontario and New 
Brunswick. A good many of them were reimbursed 
for their losses by Parliament. 

When the British government saw that these pro- 
visions of the treaty were not fulfilled, it retaliated by 
refusing to withdraw its troops from the northern and 
western frontier posts. The British army q^^^^ 
sailed from Charleston on the 14th of Decem- Britain re- 

taliates, 

ber, 1782, and from New York on the 25th of presuming 

November, 1783 ; but in contravention of the weakness 

treaty small garrisons remained at Ogdens- °nJof^^^^ 

burgh, Oswego, Niagara, Erie, Sandusky, De- ""'°" , 

J^ ^ ' . among the 

troit, and Mackinaw until the ist of June, 1796. states. 
Besides this, laws were passed which bore very severely 
upon American commerce, and the Americans found it 
impossible to retaliate because the different states would 
not agree upon any commercial policy in common. On 
the other hand, the states began making commercial 
war upon each other, with navigation laws and high 
tariffs. Such laws were passed by New York to inter- 
fere with the trade of Connecticut, and the merchants 
of the latter state began to hold meetings and pass 
resolutions forbidding all trade whatever with New 
York. 

The old quarrels about territory were kept up, and in 
1784 the troubles in the Wyoming valley and in the 
Green Mountains came to the very verge of civil war. 
People in Europe, hearing of such things, believed that 
the Union would soon fall to pieces and become the 
prey of foreign powers. It was disorder and calamity 
of this sort that such men as Hutchinson had feared, 
in case the control of Great Britain over the colonies 
should cease. George III. looked upon it all with satis- 
faction, and believed that before long the states would 



250 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

one after another become repentant and beg to be taken 
back into the British empire. 

The troubles reached their climax in 1786. Because 
The craze there secmcd to be no other way of getting 
moife^yrand nioucy, the different states began to issue their 
*ebe?H^^^ promissory notes, and then tried to compel 
1786. people by law to receive such notes as money. 

There was a strong "paper money" party in all the 
states except Connecticut and Delaware. The most 
serious trouble was in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. 
In both states the farmers had been much impoverished 
by the war. Many farms were mortgaged, and now and 
then one was sold to satisfy creditors. The farmers 
accordingly clamored for paper money, but the mer- 
chants in towns like Boston or Providence, understanding 
more about commerce, were opposed to any such miser- 
able makeshifts. In Rhode Island the farmers prevailed. 
Paper money was issued, and harsh laws were passed 
against all who should refuse to take it at its face value. 
The merchants refused, and in the towns nearly all busi- 
ness was stopped during the summer of 1786. 

In the Massachusetts legislature the paper money 
party was defeated. There was a great outcry among 
the farmers against merchants and lawyers, and some 
were heard to maintain that the time had come for 
wiping out all debts. In August, 1 786, the malcontents 
rose in rebellion, headed by one Daniel Shays, who had 
been a captain in the Continental army. They began 
by trying to prevent the courts from sitting, and went 
on to burn barns, plunder houses, and attack the arsenal 
at Springfield. The state troops were called out under 
General Lincoln, two or three skirmishes were fought, 
in which a few lives were lost, and at length, in Febru- 
ary, 1787, the insurrection was suppressed. 



§§ loi, 102. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 25I 

At that time the mouth of the Mississippi River and 
the country on its western bank belonged to Spain. 
Kentucky and Tennessee were rapidly becoming settled 
by people from Virginia and North Carolina, TheMis- 
and these settlers wished to trade with New ques^P^ 
Orleans, The Spanish government was un- ^786. 
friendly and wished to prevent such traffic. The people 
of New England felt little interest in the southwestern 
country or the Mississippi River, but were very anxious 
to make a commercial treaty with Spain. The govern- 
ment of Spain refused to make such a treaty except on 
condition that American vessels should not be allowed 
to descend the Mississippi River below the mouth of the 
Yazoo. When Congress seemed on the point of yield- 
ing to this demand, the southern states were very angry. 
The New England states were equally angry at what 
they called the obstinacy of the South, and threats of 
secession were heard on both sides. 

102. How the Federal Constitution Came to be 
Framed. Perhaps the only thing that kept the Union 
from falling to pieces in 1786 was the Northwestern 
Territory, which George Rogers Clark had conquered in 
1779, ^^^ which skilful diplomacy had enabled us to 
keep when the treaty was drawn up in 1782. Virginia 
claimed this territory and actually held it, but New 
York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut also had claims 
upon it. It was the idea of Maryland that ^^^ ^^^jj^ 
such a vast region ought not to be added to western 

° . _ "^ territory ; 

any one state, or divided between two or three the first 
of the states, but ought to be the common domain, 
property of the Union. Maryland had refused i780-87. 
to ratify the Articles of Confederation until the four 
states that claimed the northwestern territory should 
yield their claims to the United States. This was done 



252 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XIL 

between 1780 and 1786, and thus for the first time the 
United States government was put in possession of 
valuable property which could be made to yield an in- 
come and pay debts. This piece of property was about 
the first thing in which all the American people were 
alike interested, after they had won their independence. 
It could be opened to immigration and made to pay the 
whole cost of the war and much more. During these 
troubled years Congress was busy with plans for organ- 
izing this territory, which at length resulted in the 
famous Ordinance of 1787, laying down fundamental 
laws for the government of what has since developed 
into the five great states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, and Wisconsin. While other questions 
tended to break up the Union, the questions that arose 
in connection with this work tended to hold it to- 
gether. 

The need for easy means of communication between 
the old Atlantic states and this new country behind 
the mountains led to schemes which ripened in course 
of time into the construction of the Chesapeake and 
Ohio and the Erie canals. In discussing such schemes, 
Maryland and Virginia found it necessary to agree upon 
some kind of commercial policy to be pursued by both 
states. Then it was thought best to seize the occasion 
for calling a general convention of the states to decide 
The con- upou 3. Uniform system of regulations for com- 
vention at mercc, This convention was held at Annapolis 

Annapolis, _ '■ 

Sept. II, in September, 1786, but only five states had 
sent delegates, and so the convention adjourned 
after adopting an address written by Alexander Hamil- 
ton, calling for another convention to meet at Philadel- 
phia on the second Monday of the following May, "to 
devise such further provisions as shall appear necessary 



§102. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 253 

to render the constitution of the Federal government 
adequate to the exigencies of the Union." 

The Shays rebellion and the quarrel about the Missis- 
sippi River had by this time alarmed people so that it 
began to be generally admitted that the Federal gov- 
ernment must be in some way strengthened. If there 
were any doubt as to this, it was removed by the 
action of New York. An amendment to the Articles 
of Confederation had been proposed, giving Congress 
the power of levying customs-duties and appointing 
the collectors. By the summer of 1786, all the states 
except New York had consented to do this. But in 
order to amend the articles, unanimous consent was 
necessary, and in February, 1787, New York's refusal 
defeated the amendment. Congress was thus left with- 
out any immediate means of raising a revenue, and it 
became quite clear that something must be done without 
delay. 

The famous Federal Convention met at Philadelphia 
in May, 1787, and remained in session four months, with 
Washington presiding. Its work was the framing of 
the government under which we are now living, and in 
which the evils of the old confederation have The Fed- 
been avoided. The trouble had all the while vention"at 
been how to get the whole American people ^u"*^^'' - 
represented in some body that could thus right- Sept., 1787, 
fully tax the whole American people. This was the 
question which the Albany Congress had tried to settle 
in 1754, and which the Federal Convention did settle in 
1787. 

In the old confederation, starting with the Continen- 
tal Congress in 1774, the government was all vested in 
a single body which represented states, but did not 
represent individual persons. It was for that reason 
that it was called a congress rather than a parliament. 



254 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XH 




HAMILTON.l 



It was more like a congress 
of European states than the 
legislative body of a nation, 
such as the English Parlia- 
ment was. It had no execu- 
tive and no judiciary. It 
could not tax, and it could not 
enforce its decrees. 

The new constitution 
changed all this by creating 
the House of Representatives, 
which stood in the same rela- 
tion to the whole American people as the legislative 
assembly of each single state to the people of 
that state. In this body the people were rep- 
resented, and could therefore tax themselves. 
At the same time in the Senate the old equal- 
ity between the states was preserved. All 
control over commerce, currency, and finance 
lodged in this new Con- 
gress, and absolute free trade 
was established between the 
states. In the office of Presi- 
dent a strong executive was 
created. And besides all this, 
there was a system of Federal 
courts for deciding questions 
arising under Federal laws. Most , 
remarkable of all, in some re- - 
spects, was the power given to 
the P'ederal Supreme Court, of deciding, in special cases, 
whether laws passed by the several states, or by Congress 
itself, were conformable to the Federal Constitution. 

^ After a crayon by J. Baker. 

* After the original crayon portrait by St. Memin. 



The new 
govern- 
ment in 
which the 
Revolution 
was con- 
summated, 
1789. 



was 




JEFFERSON.2 



5 102. 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 



255 




MARSHALL.l 



Many men of great and various powers played impor 

tant parts in effecting this 
change of government, which 
at length established the 
American Union in such a 
form that it could endure ; 
but the three who stood 
foremost in the work were 
George Washington, James 
Madison, and Alexander 
Hamilton. Two other men, 
whose most important work 
came somewhat later, must 
be mentioned along with these, for the sake of com- 
pleteness. It was John Marshall, chief justice of the 
United States from 1801 to 1835, whose profound deci- 
sions did more than those of any later judge could ever 
do toward establishing the 
sense in which the Constitu- 
tion must be understood. It 
was Thomas Jefferson, presi- 
dent of the United States 
from 1 80 1 to 1809, whose 
sound democratic instincts 
and robust political philoso- 
phy prevented the Federal 
government from becoming 
too closely allied with the in- 
terests of particular classes, 
and helped to make it what it should be, — a " govern- 
'ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." 

^ After a painting by Rembrandt Peale, in the rooms of the Long 
Island Historical Society. 

2 After a painting by C. W. Peale, in the rooms of the Long Island 
Historical Society. 




MADISON. 2 






256 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XH 

In the making of the government under which we Hve, 
these five names — Washington, Madison, Hamilton, 
Jefferson, and Marshall — stand before all others. I 
mention them here chronologically, in the order of the 
times at which their influence was felt at its maximum. 

When the work of the Federal Convention was sanc- 
tioned by the Continental Congress and laid before the 
people of the several states, to be ratified by special con- 
ventions in each state, there was earnest and sometimes 
bitter discussion. Many people feared that the new 
government would soon degenerate into a tyranny. But 
the century and a half of American history that had 
already elapsed had afforded such noble political train- 
ing for the people that the discussion was, on the whole, 
more reasonable and more fruitful than any that had 
ever before been undertaken by so many men. The 
result was the adoption of the Federal Constitution, fol- 
lowed by the inauguration of George Washington, on 
the balcony of the Federal Building, in Wall Street, 
New York, April 30, 1789, as President of the United 
States. For a short time the city of New York was the 
seat of the government. 

Thus, the Middle Period of American history, which 
began, in 1689, with the struggle between France and 
England for the possession of North America, came 
to an end, in 1789, with the birth of an independent 
English-speaking nation. 



topics and questions. 

Drifting toward Anarchy. 

1. Lord North's receipt of the news from Virginia. 

2. Remaining events of the war. 

3. The treaty of peace : 

a. By whom negotiated on our part. 



Ch. XII. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 257 

b. When signed. 

c. Its terms with respect to territory. 

4. Continuance of the old difficulty about government. 

5. Discontent in the army and its cause. 

6. A scheme to make Washington king. 

7. The disbanding of the army. 

8. Reasons for and against this disbanding. 

9. Provisions of the treaty not carried out: 

a. Confiscation of property. 

b. Collection of debts. 

10. Treatment of the Tories. 

11. British retahation : 

a. Through nonwithdrawal of troops. 

b. Through adverse commercial legislation. 

12. Why American retaliation was difficult. 

13. Commercial war among the states. 

14. Quarrels among the states about territory. 

15. European opinion about the drift of things. 

16. The craze for paper money: 

a. Promissory notes. 

b. Why the farmers wanted paper money. 

c. The triumph of the farmers in Rhode Island. 
(i. The Shays rebellion in Massachusetts. 

17. The Mississippi question: 

a. Trade with New Orleans. 

b. Commerce with Spain. 

I c. The attitude of the Spanish government. 

' d. The stirring up of angry feelings. 

102. How THE Federal Constitution Came to be Framed. 

1. The Northwestern Territory as a bond of union : 

a. How the United States came to own it. 

b. Why such ownership proved a blessing. 

c. The Ordinance of 1787. 

2. How the Federal Convention came to be called : 

a. The occasion for calling a commercial convention. 

b. This convention and its outcome. 

c. Effect of the Shays rebellion on popular thought 
about the government. 

d. How certain action by New York strengthened this 
thought. 



258 



THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XIL 

3. The Federal Convention : 

a. Its session. 

b. Its great work. 

c. Tlie Continental Congress unlike a parliament. 

d. Provisions of the new Constitution relating (i) to 

the legislative department, (2) to the executive 
department, and (3) to the judicial department. 

4. Men prominent in changing the government : 

a. The three foremost men. 

b. The contribution of John Marshall. 

c. The contribution of Thomas Jefferson. 

5. The ratification of the Federal Constitution. 

6. The Middle Period of American history. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Give an account of Hutchinson (page 249), and tell what 

views he held about the relations of the colonists to the 
mother country (see Fiske's American Revolutioti, vol. 
i. 62, 63). 

2. Review the history and work of the first Continental 

Congress. 

3. Review the history and work of the second Continental 

Congress. 

4. Was there a third Continental Congress ? 

5. Compare the organization of our present Congress with 

that of the Continental Congress. 

6. Compare the powers of our present Congress with those 

of the Continental Congress. 

7. Is the Congress of the United States to-day a lineal de- 

scendant of the Continental Congress ? Give reasons 
for your answer. 

8. Why was it necessary to substitute a new constitution for 

the old Articles of Confederation ? 

9. Why were people so reluctant to establish a strong govern- 

ment to succeed that of the Continental Congress.'' 
ID. How was this reluctance finally overcome ? 

11. What is despotism ? What is anarchy ? Which of these 

two conditions did the people fear the more ? What 
signs of each were discernible or thought to be dis- 
cernible at the close of the war ? 

12. Compare the Articles of Confederation with our present 



II. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 259 

Constitution in the provisions made by each for the fol- 
lowing matters : — 

a. Legislative authority. 

b. Executive authority. 

c. Judicial authority. 

13. Compare the Articles of Confederation with our present 

Constitution in respect to the following : — 

a. Money-raising power. 

b. Army-and-navy raising power. 

14. Mention several things that our present Congress legally 

does which the Continental Congress had no power to 
do. 

15. Is there any power or authority higher than that of the Con- 

stitution ? If so, what is it ? Are the constitutions of the 
various states controlled in any way by that of the United 
States ? If so, show in what general way. Mention some 
things among us that are controlled by United States 
laws, some by state laws, and some by town or city laws. 
Is it allowable for these three classes of laws to conflict 
with one another .-' 

16. Find authority in the Constitution for various things that 

Congress has done, such as the following : 

a. It has established a military academy at West Point, 

b. It has given public lands to Pacific railroads. 

c. It has authorized uniforms for letter carriers. 

d. It has ordered surveys of the coast. 

e. It has established the Yellowstone National Park. 

f. It has voted millions of dollars for pensions. 

^. It refused during the Civil War to pay its promises 

with silver or gold. 
h. It bought Alaska of Russia. 
/. It has adopted exclusive measures towards the Chinese. 

17. Cite clauses of the Constitution, and tell what particular 

things Congress has done because of such authority. For 
example, what specific things have been done under the 
following powers of Congress ? 

a. To collecc taxes. 

b. To regulate commerce with foreign nations. 

c. To coin money. 

d. To establish post-roads. 

e. To provide for the common defence. 
f. To provide for the general welfare. 



26o THE REVOLUTION. Ch, XIL 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

The following topics for collateral reading are intended pri- 
marily for the teacher and the more mature and intelligent pupils. 
They are selected from Fiske's The Critical Period of American 
History, — a work that deals with events from the close of the 
American Revolution, in 1783, down to the inauguration of Wash- 
ington, in 1789, as the first president of the United States under 
the new Constitution. 

1. The Thirteen Commonwealths. 

a. Washington's farewell to the army, 51-53. 

b. The legacy of his advice, 54. 

c. Love of union then and to-day, 55-59. 

d. Local jealousies and primitive savagery, 62. 

e. The states and the nation in the Revolution, 63-65. 

2. The League of Friendship between the States. 

a. The Continental Congress, 90-98. 

b. Its three fatal defects, 99-101. 

c. Military weakness of the government, 101-103. 

d. Money weakness of the government, 104- 11 2. 

e. Hamilton and the Tories, 124-130. 

3. Drifting toward Anarchy. 

a. Barbarous ideas about trade, 134-137. 

b. Commercial war between the states, 145-147. 

c. Almost a war between Connecticut and Pennsylvania, 

147-151. 

d. Almost another about Vermont, 1 51-153. 

e. The Barbary pirates, 157-161. 

f. The craze for paper money, 168-177. 

g. An insurrection in Massachusetts, 177-186. 

4. The Germs of National Sovereignty. 

a. Rival claims to a great folkland, 1 87-191. 

b. The triumph of Maryland's grand idea, 191-194. 

c. Virginia's magnanimity, 195. 

d. The backwoodsmen's short-lived state, 199-201. 

e. The famous Ordinance of 1787, 203-207. 

f. The leading men in the Federal Convention, 222-229. 

5. The Great Discussions of the Federal Convention, 

230-305- 
5, The Crowning of the Convention's Mighty Work, 
306-350. 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 
1789-1905. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 1789-18 1 5. 

103. The Country and the People. The nation over 
which George Washington was called to preside, in 1789, 
was a third-rate power. It was, for example, a ti.ird- 
decidedly inferior in population and wealth to ^^^^ p°'^^''' 
the Belgium of to-day, and about on a level with Den- 
mark or Portugal. The population, numbering scarcely 
four millions, was thinly scattered through the region 
east of the Alleghanies, beyond which mountain bar- 
rier there were about 100,000 in Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky, and the town of Marietta, in Ohio, had just been 
founded. East of the mountains, the red man had 
ceased to be dangerous, but tales of Indian massacre 
still came from places no more remote than Ohio and 
Georgia. The occupations of the people were simple. 
There were few manufactures. In the coast towns of 
:he northern states there were many merchants, sea- 
nen, and fishermen, but most of the people were farm- 
ers who lived on what they raised upon their own 
•states. People seldom undertook long journeys, and 
nails were not very regular. It took a week to go'from 
^oston to New York in a stagecoach, and all large 
ivers, such as the Connecticut, had to be crossed in 
-oats, as none of them had bridges. Hence, the differ- 



262 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XTH 



ent parts of the country knew very little about each 
other, and entertained absurd prejudices ; and the sen- 
timent of union between the states was very weak. 

The change in the modes of living since the first set- 
tlement of the country was very slight compared with 
the changes that have taken place since 1800. There 
were no large cities. Philadelphia, in 1790, had a popu- 
lation of about 42,000 (rather less than Springfield, 
Mass., in 1890). Next came New York, with 33,000; 
then Boston, with 18,000; and Baltimore, with 13,000. 
Such towns had not yet lost the rural look. In Boston, 




BOSTON' IN 1790.1 



for example, the streets were unpaved, and the side- 
walks unflagged. The better houses were usu- 
' ^ ' ^' ally built of brick, with little flower gardens in 
front, or lawns dotted with shrubbery. The furniture, 
silver, and china in them were mostly imported from 

^ Facsimile of a print in the Massachusetts Magazine, November, 1790' ' 
The point of view is in Governor Hancock's grounds ; the common, with 
the great elm, is in the middle distance, the south part of the town, with 
the Neck, is beyond, and in the further parts are Dorchester Heights. 



» lOJ 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



263 




— U", i* ^ 



HANCOCK HOUSE.l 



England, but some fine pieces of furniture were made 
at Dedham near by. There was no heating by fur- 
naces or steam pipes, but there were large fireplaces 
with brass andirons holding stout logs of wood. A tall 
block usually stood in the corner, and fairly good pic- 
tures, including portraits by Copley and historic scenes 
by Trumbull, hung upon the walls. Of books there 
.vere very few by American authors. Milton and Bun- 
/an, Pope and Young, the Spectator, the Letters of 
funius, and Rollin*s Ancient History were the books 
jftenest seen lying about. The people who lived in 

I * This noble stone house, on Beacon Hill, was built in 1737, by Thomas 
iancock, upon whose death, in 1764, it became the property of his 
ephew, John Hancock. In 1859, the Legislature of Massachusetts was 
irged to buy and preserve it. This attempt failed, and, in 1863, the 
state was sold by the heirs, and the house was presently pulled down. 



264 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIU 




A HARPSICHORD. 



those houses were dressed exactly like gentlemen and 
ladies in England. Social life consisted largely in go- 
ing out to dinner or tea, or in going to church. In the 
larger towns there were 
balls with dancing. In- 
stead of the modern piano 
there were spinets and 
harpsichords, — small in- 
struments somewhat like 
a piano, with thin metal- 
lic tones. Very little 
was known about music. 
Theatres were just begin- 
ning to be established in 
spite of furious opposi- 
tion. Actors in Boston 
tried to evade the law by calling plays "moral lectures," 
but the trick did not succeed ; one evening in Decem- 
ber, 1792, a performance of the School for Scandal was 
stopped at the end of the second act by the sheriff, who 
threatened to arrest all the actors. 

In the country there were large and handsome houses, 
many of which are still standing, built of wood, with 
Country Very solid frames, finished inside with elabo- 
' ^' rate paneling, and furnished as well as the 

best city houses. The ordinary farmer lived in a smaller 
house, often with only a single floor and a garret. In 
the centre rose an immense brick chimney with an oven 
in it for baking bread, or pies, or beans. Besides the 
bedrooms there was a " best room," or parlor, opened 
only for weddings, funerals, Thanksgiving Day, or other 
rare occasions. There were the polished candlesticks, 
the family portraits, the few cherished books. But the 
pleasantest part of the house was the kitchen with its 



§103- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



265 



great fireplace and swinging crane and high-backed 
settle, its bunches of herbs and apples or onions hang- 
ing from the ceiling, its spinning wheel, busy in the 
evening, its corner cupboard bright with pewter mugs 
and dishes, and its cosy table to which buckwheat cakes 




AN OLD-FASHIONED KITCHEN. 1 



Copyrighted bj B. A. Ordway. 



could be handed from the griddle without having time 
to cool. Here was servea the midday dinner of salted 
pork, beef, or fish, with potatoes and brown bread. Of 
the fine succulent vegetables, so wholesome and now so 
common, the farmer in those days knew little. Ice was 
not stored for use ; water was drawn fresh from the deep 

■^ The above picture of a New England kitchen is copied by permission 
^rom a photograph of the kitchen in the Whittier homestead at East Haver- 
hill, Mass., so graphically described in Whittier's exquisite poem, Snoiv- 
Bound. The room on the right, opening from the kitchen, is the chamber 
in which the poet was born. The house is now under the care of a Whit- 
, tier Memorial Association, and b open to the public. 



266 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIIL 



Travel. 



well, and down in that same cool, dark place, the butter 
was hung in a pail and brought up at, meal time dainty 
and toothsome. 

In New England, wheeled vehicles were coming into 
use as the roads were improved ; but people in the 
rural districts still went chiefly on horseback, 
and the women were still commonly carried to 
church on pillions. In the South, almost all travel was 
on horseback, or else by boat on the large rivers. Peo- 
ple went about so little that even in a town so large as 
Philadelphia, where Congress for so many years assem- 
bled, the sight of a stranger on the streets was apt to 
arouse curiosity, and an American who had crossed the 
Atlantic was sure to be pointed out, with the exclama- 
tion, " There 's a man that has been to Europe ! " 

Ma0l)ington'sf 0Dmmis?cracton0» 

Federalist : lySg-iygj. 
104. Elements of Progress. This country, which 
seemed so insignificant beside the great powers of 
Europe,, contained within itself the 
germs of such an industrial and 
political expansion as the world 
Sources of ucvcr saw before. The 
wealth. natural sources of wealth 
in North America — its soil, its 
timber, its mines — were so vast, 
the opportunities for earning a 
living were so many, as to create 
a steady demand for labor, far 
greater than any ordinary increase 
of population could supply. The 
steam-engine had lately been in- 
vented, and was being applied in England to machinery 




A COTTON PLANT. 



§ 104- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



267 



for spinning and weaving. This was the beginning of 
the age of machinery and of countless inventions for 
increasing man's power of production. Soon the ad- 
vantage of all this was felt in the United States more 
than in any other part of the world, and people came 
flocking here from other countries because there was 
plenty for them to do. 

To secure such advantages, it was necessary that the 
Federal government should be strong enough to pre- 
serve peace at home, and to make itself respected 




A COTTON FIELD. 



govern- 
ment. 



abroad ; for neither business nor pleasure thrives amid 
anarchy or in a country that cannot defend 
itself. It was equally necessary that local self- 
government should be maintained in every 
part of the Union ; otherwise, people would lose their 
liberties, and life would become less attractive. After 
a century, we can truly say that, in spite of one great 
Civil War and some minor contests, our Federal Con- 



268 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII 

stitution has kept the American Union in such pro- 
found peace as was hardly ever seen before in any part 
of the earth since men began to live upon its surface. 
At the same time, local self-government has not been 
seriously interfered with, and the just rights of the 
states have, on the whole, been duly respected. 

105. Hamilton and the Assumption of Debts. This 
great success has been largely due to the fact that 
under President Washington a sound and correct start 
was made. The money question was most pressing. 
Since the old Continental Congress had been unable to 
pay its debts, American credit was dead. In 1784, 
Amsterdam bankers refused to lend so small a sum as 
i^300,ooo on the pledge of the United States to repay 
it. Washington's secretary of the treasury was Alex- 
ander Hamilton, one of the greatest statesmen this 
Alexander couutry has cvcr kuown. He was wonderfully 
Hamilton, succcssful in finance. As Daniel Webster 
afterward said of him, "He touched the dead corpse of 
public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." Hamilton 
understood that it is impossible to keep one's credit 
without paying one's debts. He therefore proposed 
that the government should accurately compute all the 
debts of the Continental Congress, both foreign and 
domestic, and pay the whole amount in full, with inter- 
est. This point he carried. Then he proposed some- 
thing that surprised everybody and alarmed many ; he 
proposed that the debts of the separate states should 
be assumed and paid by the Federal government. In 
this there was profound wisdom. Most of the creditors 
to whom the states owed money were American citi- 
zens. If the United States were to assume the state 
debts, all these creditors would at once become cred- 
itors of the United States, and all would be eager to 



§ 105. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 269 

have the Federal government get an ample revenue and 
be enabled to pay its creditors. This would result in 
building up a party directly interested in strengthening 
the Federal Government. Another of Hamilton's pro- 
posals, with the same end in view, was the establish- 
ment of a great bank, in which the national government 
should be a shareholder and partly a director. 

But some people objected to these measures, and said 
that the Constitution nowhere gives to Congress the 
right to charter such a bank, nor does it grant the right 
to raise money by taxation in order to pay debts owed 
by a state. 

To this objection Hamilton had an answer ready. 
There is a clause in the Constitution (article I., section 
viii., clause i8) which gives to Congress the right "to 
make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution . . . the powers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United 
States." This ought to be called the Elastic TheEias- 
Clause of the Constitution, because it can be *'<= Clause, 
stretched so as to cover things it was not meant to 
cover, and it is always important to know how far it 
will do to stretch it. Hamilton said that his measures 
were needed to set the new government fairly on its 
feet. His opponents, led by Thomas Jefferson, said that 
the plea of necessity is a tyrant's plea ; that if you were to 
give Congress an inch it would take an ell ; and that the 
Elastic Clause would be a source of danger unless con- 
strued very strictly and made to cover as few things as 
possible. 

In this way arose the first great division between 
political parties under the Constitution. The ^ . . 

^ * ^ . Division 

Hamiltonians gave a loose or liberal construe- into par- 
tion to the Elastic Clause in order to make 



270 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

the new government strong. The Jeffersonians gave a 
strict or narrow construction to that clause because 
they were afraid the new government would grow too 
strong and become tyrannical. 

Before the time of which we are speaking, the North 
was as afraid of a strong Federal government as the 
South. But in the northern states there were many 
more merchants and capitalists who had lent money to 
the states, and nearly all these people supported Hamil- 
ton, On the other hand, the southern planters were 
afraid of having the government managed too much by 
capitalists, and so they generally supported Jefferson. 
Thus, the love for a strong Federal Union began to 
grow much faster at the North than at the South. 

The site for a Federal capital was to be selected. 
The Feder- Northern people wanted to have it as far north 
ai capital, ^g ^^iq Delaware River, in order to have it more 
under northern influence. Southern people wanted to 
have it as far south as the Potomac. The dispute 
over this question and the dispute over assumption both 
raged fiercely. A bargain was made in which each side 
gave up one thing in order to get the other. Congress 
assumed all the state debts, and the city of Washington 
was built on the bank of the Potomac. 

106. The Tariff; War with the Indians. The 
assumption of state debts was a master-stroke of policy 
in strengthening the Union. Now, in order to pay all 
these old debts, state and national. Congress must have 
a revenue ; and it must have a revenue in order to pay 
the current expenses of government. How was this 
money to be got ? People were terribly afraid of having 
Indirect their taxcs increased. A direct tax would per- 
*^^*'°"- haps have been resisted. But there is a kind 
of indirect tax which a great many people scarcely notice 



§ io6. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



271 




or feel. By putting a tariff on goods imported from 
foreign countries, large sums of money can be raised 
without people realizing that they are paying a tax. 
By a very moderate tariff, Hamilton obtained at once 
revenue enough to carry on the government and provide 
for the payment of all the debts. He also recom- 
mended that the tariff be used to encourage native 
manufactures as well 
as to obtain revenue. 
He saw that manufac- 
tures were likely to 
spring up, and that it 
would be well to in- 
terest manufacturers 
in favor of a strong 
government. South- 
ern people wanted 
tariffs kept as low as ^"'^^^ °^ '^°'^^ ^■^'^' '79o-95. 

possible, and said that the Constitution gave Congress 
no power to raise money by tariff for any other purpose 
than revenue. 

Hamilton's prudence in avoiding direct taxation was 
shown in one case where he departed from his rule. 
On whiskey he laid a small tax, and the distillers of the 
Alleghany region refused to pay it. In western Penn- 
sylvania, in 1794, there was something like a rebellion, 
but President Washington called out 15,000 troopS; 
and the insurgents were convinced by that sort of argu- 
ment without a battle. 

In those days, as before and since, the red men gave 
the army plenty to do. The western frontier , ^. 

■^ '■ ■' Indian war. 

was then near the Wabash River. In 1790, 

the Indians won a great victory over General Harmar, 

near the site of Fort Wayne, and, in the following year, 



2/2 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII 

they inflicted a terrible defeat upon General St. Clair, 
near the headwaters of the Wabash. Then they tried 
to make a treaty which should exclude white settlers 
from that region ; but in 1794, in a fierce battle near 
the site of Toledo, they were so badly defeated by 
General Wayne that they were ready to accept a treaty 
by which they were moved further west, 

107. Foreign Affairs ; Federalists and Republicans. 
The great French Revolution broke out in 1789; the 
monarchy in France was overturned, and a republic 
proclaimed in 1792. War broke out between France 
and England early in 1793. The disorder in France 
amounted almost to anarchy, and the Hamiltonians 
sympathized with England as the upholder of law and 
order in Europe. The Jeffersonians, on the other hand, 
sympathized with the revolutionists in France. This 
made the quarrel between the two parties in America 
intensely bitter ; for the French expected us to help 
them in their war against England. In 1793, they sent, 
Citizen as minister to the United States, a man named 
Genet. Genet. The French democrats thought 
** Monsieur " and " Madame " too aristocratic titles, and 
so they addressed each other as " Citizen " and " Citi- 
zeness." This Citizen Genet behaved as if he owned 
the United States. Without waiting for permission 
from our government, he tried to have privateers fitted 
out in American seaports, and thus to drag us into war 
with Great Britain. Some Jeffersonians were ready to 
uphold him in almost everything, but his warmest sup- 
porters soon found his insolence intolerable. Washing- 
ton sternly checked his proceedings, and the French 
government presently thought it best to recall him. 

After the peace of 1783, the Tories in the United 
States were so badly treated that many thousands left 



5 107. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



^7Z 



the country ; many of these went to Canada. In some 
of the states, British merchants found it impos- jay's 
sible to collect old debts. By way of retalia- ^'^^^'^' 
tion for these things, England delayed surrendering 
Detroit and other northwestern posts. It was believed 
that British officers in those places had secretly helped 
the hostile Indians. British war-ships had a way of 
seizing American vessels bound to or from French 
ports, and, what galled us worst of all, they used t(.> 
search our ships and 
carry off American 
seamen on the pre- 
tense that they were 
deserters from the 
British navy. To 
put an end to these 
troubles, John Jay, 
chief justice of the 
United States, was 
sent on a special 
mission to London. 
He negotiated a 
treaty in which 
Great Britain did 
not give up the right 
Df search, but most other points were conceded. It 
was far preferable to war, and Washington's personal 
nfluence secured its adoption in spite of furious op- 
Dosition. 

Hamilton's followers were properly called Federal- 
sts They believed in having a strong Fed- The two 
;ral Union instead of a loose Confederacy, p^*"''^^- 
uch as the United States had been before 1789. The 

1 From the Stuart portrait in Tuckerman's Life of William yay. 




CHIEF JUSTICE JAY.l 



274 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

Jeffersonians accused them of being monarchists at 
heart and lovers of England. They used to say that 
Federalist statesmen were bribed with " British gold " 
to convert our government into a monarchy. In con- 
trast to such a party, the Jeffersonians called themselves 
" Republicans." This name implied that they were the 
only true friends of republican government. But their 
opponents, the Hamiltonians, called them " Democrats," 
and accused them of wishing to imitate in all things the 
democratic Frenchmen who were busily chopping off 
aristocratic heads in Paris. After a while, the Jeffer- 
sonian party came to be known as Democratic-Re- 
publican. 

Washington refused to be a candidate for a third 
^, , term, and the election of i7q6 was contested 

The elec- .. 

tion of between Jefferson and John Adams. The rule 
then was that the candidate who got the high- 
est number of electoral votes should be president, and 
the one with the next highest number should be vice- 
president. This was an unwise rule, since under it the 
death of the president might reverse the result of the 
election. In 1796, it made John Adams president, with 
Thomas Jefferson for vice-president. 

^Dmtnisftration of Jloljn 0iJam0» 

Federalist : lygy-lSoi. 

108. The Quarrel with France. The French gov- 
ernment was very angry with the United States for 
making the Jay treaty with Great Britain. The elec- 
tion of Adams to the presidency also enraged the 
French. They ordered our minister to leave the coun- 
try, and their cruisers began capturing American mer-l 
chant vessels. For the United States, in that period of 



I IC 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



275 



Z. dis- 
patches." 



iveakness, war was extremely undesirable. President 
A-dams sent commissions to Paris to arrange matters 
imicably, but the government refused to receive them, 
[t was base enough, however, to approach them secretly 
ivith a most impudent and infamous proposal. Emis- 
saries from Prince Talleyrand caused it to be understood 
:hat if the United States were to bribe several members 
)f the French government with liberal sums of money, 
:he attacks upon our shipping would be stopped. The 
American envoys got this proposal in writing, and sent 
t to President Adams, who laid the papers before Con- 
gress. In April, 1798, the Senate had the whole thing 
Drinted and published. The letters of Talley- , 
•and's emissaries were signed X. Y. Z., and 
:he dispatches of the envoys have always been 
cnown as the "X. Y. Z. dispatches." There was 
lerce outburst of 
vrath from one 
md of the United 
States to the 
)ther. The pop- 
ilar war cry was, 
'Millions for de- 
ense ; not one 
:ent for tribute ! " 
Vn army was 
aised, and Wash- 
ngton, though in 
lis sixty-seventh 
iear, was appoint- 
id to command 




THE TRUXTUN MEDA1» 



|. A few very 

ne war-ships were built, and one of them soon 

hewed her mettle. In February, 1799, the gallant 



276 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. xin. 



Thomas Truxtun, in the 38-gun frigate Constellation, 

captured the French 38-gun frigate L'Insurgente in the 

Caribbean Sea. The French government, as- 
French na- 

vai vessels tonishcd at this blow, became more courteous, 
cap ure . ^^^ signified its wish to avoid a war. The 
Federalist party was eager for war, and Adams knew 




JOHN ADAMS.l 

well that if he were to deal peaceably with France, it 
would be likely to prevent his reelection to the presi- 
dency ; but he sacrificed his own ambition to the good 
of the country, and sent envoys to France, who settled 
1 From Trumbull's painting in Memorial Hall, Cambridge, Mass. 



§§ io8, 109. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 2/7 

everything satisfactorily. Meanwhile, Captain Truxtun, 
in an obstinate fight, had defeated and captured the 
54-gun frigate La Vengeance, — a useful ksson for 
maritime powers disposed to insult the United States. 

109. The Alien and Sedition Laws. Secret emis- 
saries of France in this country had been more or less 
troublesome, and Republican newspapers had heaped 
abuse upon President Adams, and even upon The Alien 
Washington. By the Alien Act, the president ^*^'* 
was empowered to banish from the United States any 
foreigner of whom he might entertain suspicions ; and 
if any such foreigner should return from banishment, he 
Tiight be thrown into prison and kept there as long as 
he president should think proper. The Constitution 
^ave Congress no power to pass such a law as The Sedi- 
his. By the Sedition Act, the publication of *'°" "^^^• 
ny writing calculated to bring Congress or the presi- 
lent " into contempt or disrepute " was made punishable 
ty fine and imprisonment. This law was a gross viola- 
ion of the first amendment to the Constitution, which 
Drbids Congress to make any law " abridging the free- 
om of speech, or of the press." 
The Alien and Sedition laws, passed in 1798, seri- 
usly damaged the Federalists. Their opponents could 
ow plausibly declare that the government was becom- 
\g tyrannical. The legislature of Virginia adopted a 
-Ties of resolutions drawn up by Madison, declaring 
le Alien and Sedition laws unconstitutional, and invit- 
g the other states to join in this declaration. These 
•solutions were repeated the next year, 1799. 
None of the other states took action except Kentucky, 
nich went much further than Virginia, and declared 
;; tat any state has a right to nullify an act of Congress 
lyich is in violation of the Constitution. To nullify 



2/8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

a law is to refuse to allovv^ it to be enforced within the 
Nuiiifica- state. It would be very dangerous if a single 
*i°"- state were permitted to nullify a law of the 

United States. It w6uld soon break up the Union. The 
government of the United States has never acknow- 
ledged the right of nullification, or permitted any state 
to exercise it. 

In the midst of these troubles, Washington died at 
his home, Mount Vernon, Dec. 14, 1799, having won the 
love and veneration of mankind for all coming ages. 

Thus far, the government had been entirely in the 
hands of the Federalist party, and many people believed 
that if a Republican president were to be elected it 
would ruin the country. But, in spite of such 
tion of forebodings, the indignation over the Alien and 
Sedition laws prevailed, and the Federalists 
were defeated. The old rule of taking for president thf 
name highest on the list, and for vice-president the namcj 
next to the highest, now made serious trouble. Th(| 
Republicans intended to have Aaron Burr for vice-presij 
dent. There were 73 electoral votes for Jefferson, 7;! 
for Burr, 65 for Adams, etc., so that no name was high 
est on the list, and the election had to be decided b; 
the House of Representatives. Some Federalists, will 
ing to do anything to defeat Jefferson, intrigued ii 
favor of Burr, but the House elected Jefferson only 
fortnight before Adams's term expired. The dela 
raised a fear that the nation might be left without an 
president. To prevent the recurrence of such a 
absurd difficulty, the twelfth amendment to the Const 
tution was passed, in 1804. Since then, all candidate 
for the presidency have been named as such on tb 
ballot, and the candidates for the vice-presidency ha\ 
been named separately. 



t 



§ iia 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



279 



Democratic-Republican : l8oi-l8og. 

110. Louisiana, Oregon, and Tripoli. In 1800 the 
Federal government had been removed from Philadel- 
phia to Washington, and Jefferson was the first president 
I inaugurated in the Federal city. The new president 




THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON.! 



as a very remarkable man. He was an accomplished 
holar, reading several languages with ease. Thomas 
^e was deeply interested in science and J^^^""^""- 
lilosophy. He was a daring horseman, a dead shot 
ith a rifle, and a skillful performer on the violin. He 

^ This is the east front of the Capitol as it looks to-day. The old 
irth wing (just right of the centre) was finished in 1800, the old south 
\ig in iSii. The building was destroyed by the British in 1814, and 
Duilt in 1817-27. The two extreme wings were added in 1851-59, and 
t' great dome was finished in 1865, which was, by a curious coinci- 
cice, the year in which the perpetuity of the Union was fully decided. 



28o 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIII, 




THE UNITED STATES BEFORE 1803. 

was very accurate and punctual in his habits, with a 
strong dislike for ceremony and parade. In many social 
and legislative reforms he was a foremost leader, as 
also in such matters as devising our decimal currency. 
He wrote the Declaration of Independence. While he 
was one of the first to announce the doctrine of nullifi- 
cation, which time has not justified, he was also the 
first to announce (in 1784) the doctrine upon which the 
present Republican party was founded, in 1854, — the 
doctrine that the United States government can and 
ought to prohibit slavery in all the national territory not 
already erected into states. He was also the founder 
of the University of Virginia. There are so many sides 
to Jefferson that people often fail to understand him. 
At the time of his election, many people feared that 
he and his party would try to undo the work that had 



§ JIO. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



281 






J 



THE UNITED STATES AFTER 1803. 

been done by Hamilton. But he made no serious 
changes, and the first great shifting of party supremacy 
was managed so skillfully in his hands that people's 
fears were soon quieted. 

The most remarkable event in Jefferson's presidency 
was the expansion of our national area by the purchase 
of the Louisiana territory, comprising the entire region 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky 
Mountains, and extending from the north of Jnapu"''" 
Texas to the southern boundary of British '''^"'" 
America. By the treaty of Paris, in 1763, France had 
given this vast territory to Spain. By another treaty, 
m 1 80 1, Spain gave it back to France ; for Napoleon 
Bonaparte thought he would like to found a colony out 
there. But, in 1803, Napoleon saw that he was likely 
to have war with Great Britain, and knew that the Brit- 



282 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIIL 



ish fleet could easily keep French forces away from the 
Mississippi River ; so he was glad to sell the Louisiana 
territory to the United States, and it was done for 
$15,000,000. By making this purchase, Jefferson more 
than doubled the area of the United States. Before 
1803, that area was 827,844 square miles ; Jefferson's 
purchase added over 900,000 square miles, out of which 
have since been formed the states of Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Mon- 
tana, and the two 
Dakotas, with a 
great part of the 
states of Minne- 
sota and Colo- 
rado, and also the 
Indian Territory, 
including Okla- 
homa. 

The Constitu- 
tion gave no ex- 
press power to 
the president thus 
to add new terri- 
tory to the United 
States, but this 
purchase was so clearly for the good of the nation that 
people generally applauded it. Many Federalists at 
first tried to condemn it, but they could only do so by 
abandoning their loose construction of the Elastic 
Clause (§ 105). 

West of the Louisiana territory, and north of the 
Lewis and Spanish possessions, was a magnificent and 
Clark. fertile country where white men had never set 

foot. To what nation Oregon belonged was doubtful. 




PREBLE MEDAL (OBVERSE). 



5 no. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



283 



Its great river had been discovered, in 1 792, by Captain 
Robert Gray, of Boston, in the good ship CoUimbia, 
whose name he gave to the river. The illustrious Brit- 
ish sailors, Cook, Meares, and Vancouver, had explored 
parts of the coast. In 1804, President Jefferson sent an 
overland expedition under Captains Meriwether Lewis 
and William Clark. These explorers ascended the Mis- 
souri River to its sources, then found the valley of the 
Columbia, and explored it down to the Pacific Ocean, 

thus strengthen- 
ing our claim to 
the possession of 
Oregon. The 

story of this great 
expedition is full 
of charm. 
The Mahometan 
states of Tripoli 
and Tunis, Al- 
giers and Mo- 
rocco, had long 
made a business 
of piracy. Their 
cruisers swarmed 
upon the Medi- 
j terranean and the Atlantic, and robbed the merchant 
ships of Christian nations. The plunder which the 
1 pirates carried home they divided with their 
robber sovereigns. Distinguished captives 
were held for ransom ; all others were sold 
as slaves. This sort of thing had been going on since 




PREBLE MEDAL (REVERSE). 1 



The war 

with 

Tripoli. 



! ^ The inscription reads as follows : (obverse) The American Congress 
to Edward Preble, the gallant commander, {reverse) Defender of Ameri- 
can commerce before Tripoli, 1804. 



I 



284 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIH 

the times before Columbus, and vast sums had in vain 
been paid to the robber states to bribe them to keep the 
peace. The Americans had begun in this way, and had 
made presents to Algiers and Tunis, to keep them fromi 
seizing American vessels. Then the Bashaw of Tripolij 
informed our government that he would wait six months] 
for a handsome present from us, and if it did not come| 
he would declare war against the United States. H( 
was as good as his word, but, to the surprise of all thos€ 
pirate states, a small American fleet entered the Medi- 
terranean and bombarded the city of Tripoli. After 
hostilities had continued for a couple of years, Tripoli 
was thoroughly humiliated, and the experiment of levy- 
ing blackmail upon the Americans was never tried again 
by those barbarous states. 

Except for this war with the pirates, which was as 
creditable to our country as it was successful, Jeffer- 
_, , son's first administration was a time of pro- 

The elec- ^ 

tionof found peace. It was the only time between 
1793 and 181 5 when warfare was not going on 
between France and Great Britain, and when American 
shipping on the high seas was comparatively unmolested. 
It was a prosperous time, and Jefferson's popularity grew 
to be such that, in the autumn of 1804, he received 162 
electoral votes against 14 for the Federalist candidate, 
Cotesworth Pinckney. For vice-president, the Repub- 
licans elected George Clinton, as Burr's intrigues with, 
the Federalists had ruined his reputation. Hamilton 
had more than once interfered with Burr's schemes, 
and that wretched man vowed revenge. In 1804, he 
contrived to kill Hamilton in a duel. This aroused 
such intense indignation as to wreck Burr's career. , 
He afterwards set out on some crazy plan for creating 
a new government for himself in the Southwest, which 



§ III. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 285 

led to his arrest and trial for treason ; but for want of 
sufficient evidence he was acquitted, 

111. The Embargo Act. In Jefferson's second ad- 
ministration, it was abundantly shown that, although our 
country was growing rapidly in population and wealth, 
it was still too weak to defend itself against vexatious 
insult at the hands of strong naval powers. The United 
States had then a very large mercantile marine for a 
power of its size, and thus, between the navies of Eng- 
land and France, it was like a rich and unarmed traveler 
between two brigands. Neutral ships were forbidden by 
Napoleon to enter British ports. England replied with 
decrees, known as Orders in Council, forbid- orders in 
ding neutral ships to enter the ports of any na- ^°"""'' 
tion allied with Napoleon or subordinate to him. These 
decrees cut American ships off from almost all the har- 
bors of Europe. Both France and England did us as 
much damage as possible. But England aroused our 
wrath the more because British vessels impressed our 
seamen (§ 107). France could not offend us in this way 
because an American could not easily be mistaken for 
a Frenchman. In 1807, war came near breaking out. 
The British 50-gun frigate Leopard, close upon the coast 
of Virginia, undertook to search the American 38-gun 
frigate Chesapeake. The American captain refused to 
allow the search, whereupon the Leopard fired several 
broadsides, killing and wounding more than twenty men 
on the Chesapeake. The latter, being not even The search 
in readiness to return the fire, hauled down her qi^^^^. 
flag, whereupon British officers came on board p^^^^- 
and carried off four of the crew on the pretense that 
they were deserters from the British navy. This out- 
rage would probably have led the United States to de- 
clare war at once, had not England disavowed the act. 



286 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

If the United States had been stronger, it might have 
made war upon both France and England. As it was, 
its weakness made it hard to know what to do. It was 
thought that we could deal a heavy blow at our two tor- 
mentors, and perhaps bring them to terms, by refusing 
to trade with them altogether ; and, accordingly, in 
1807, Congress passed the Embargo Act, which forbade 
any vessel to set out from the United States for any 
foreign port. Whether this act hurt England and 
France or not, there was soon no doubt whatever that 
it was damaging the United States as badly as our 
worst enemy could wish. British and French cruisers 
had injured our commerce severely, but the Embargo 
nearly destroyed it. New England, which had the most 
shipping, suffered the most, and some Federalist leaders 
entertained dreams of seceding from the Union. 

The excitement over the Embargo did not materially 

weaken the Republican party. The legislatures 

tion of of nearly all the Republican states requested 

1808 

Jefferson to accept a third term, but he re- 
fused, as Washington had done ; and the refusal of 
these two great presidents created a feeling, which has 
come to have the force of custom, that no president 
ought to serve for more than two terms. 

In the November election, James Madison, the Re- 
publican candidate, obtained 129 electoral votes, against 
47 for Cotesworth Pinckney. In the following Feb- 
ruary, John Quincy Adams, a supporter of the Embargo, 
privately informed President Jefferson that further at- 
tempts to enforce it in the New England states would 
be likely to drive them to secession. Accordingly, the 
Embargo was repealed, and the Non-Intercourse Act was 
substituted for it. This act allowed commercial inter- 
course with all nations except England and France. 



§§ 112, 113. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 28/ 

^auisfon'fif 0Dminisftratton6;» 

Democratic-Republican : l8og-l8l'/. 

112. James Madison. For intellectual power our 
fourth president has been surpassed by none in the whole 
series. His learning was great, and, as a constructive 
statesman of the highest order, he had played a foremost 
part in making the Constitution of the United States. 
He was a man of kindly temper and great refinement 
and courtesy. Washington held him in high esteem, 
and Jefferson loved him like a brother. In politics he 
was always something more than a party leader, and he 
showed that independence which often goes with broad 
sympathies and far-sighted wisdom. 

But with all his great qualities, Madison had not 
exactly the kind of genius that could manage a war suc- 
cessfully. He was above all a man of peace. He hated 
war with all his heart ; and, like his three predecessors 
in the presidency, he felt that the best interests of the 
American nation required that it should keep out of 
war. That, however, was fast becoming impossible. 

113. Second War with Great Britain. In i8lO, 
Congress tried to hold out hopes of repealing the Non- 
Intercourse Act as a bribe to France and England to 
repeal their obnoxious decrees in so far as they affected 
American ships and commerce. Napoleon took advan- 
tage of this in a way that was just like him ; he publicly 
informed the United States that he revoked Napoleon's 
his decrees, and, at the same moment, he ^"P^'"*y- 
issued secret orders to his admiralty officials, instruct- 
ing them to pay no heed to this public announcement. 
Congress was duped, and repealed the Non-Intercourse 
Act so far as France was concerned. England was 



288 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII 

again asked to repeal her obnoxious decrees, called 
Orders in Council, but she refused on the ground that 
Napoleon had not really revoked his decrees. So the 
Non-Intercourse Act was kept up against Great Britain 
alone, and we were not long in drifting into hostilities. 
In May, 1811, the British sloop Little Belt fired upon 
the American frigate President ; the fire was returned 
until the Little Belt was sadly cut up and obliged to 
surrender. Meanwhile, many American ships, deceived 
by Napoleon's lie, had ventured into French ports. 
For a little while they were well enough treated so as 
to induce more to come ; then all at once they were all 
seized, and in this way Napoleon contrived to rob peace- 
able American citizens of several million dollars. This 
act was a far greater outrage than any that England 
had committed ; and if it were necessary for the United 
States to go to war with either power, it was cer- 
tainly France that had given us most cause for resent- 
ment. 

But a war with France must needs be defensive, for 
we could not send an army across the ocean. It would 
perhaps have been better policy for us to go to war with 
France, for that would have made England our ally, and 
would at once have put an end to the grievances we were 
suffering at her hands. A war with England, however, 
would give us a chance to be aggressive ; we might 
invade and perhaps conquer Canada. This prospect 
was tempting to the people west of the Alleghanies, and 
to a group of young and enterprising statesmen, one of 
whom, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was chosen speaker 
of the House of Representatives, in November, 181 1. 
War de- Thcsc men prevailed upon President Madison 
dared. ^^ adopt their war policy, and war was at 
length declared June 18, 18 12. Two days before this, 



§ "3- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



289 



the British government revoked its Orders in Council, 
but it was too late. Even if the news of the revocation 
had reached America in time, it is doubtful if it would 
have prevented the war unless Great Britain had also 
renounced the right of search. The popularity of the 
war was shown in the autumn elections. Some of the 
Republicans, dissatisfied with Madison, nomi- ^, , 

The dec- 

nated DeWitt Clinton, of New York, for the tion of 
presidency, and the Federalists, hopeless of 
electing any candidate of their own, concluded to sup- 
port Clinton. Of the 218 electoral votes, Madison ob- 
tained 128, and was elected. 

For England, the "mistress of the seas," the war be- 
gan with some strange surprises. On the 13th Naval 
of August, the frigate Essex, Captain Porter, ^•'^'°"^s. 
captured the British sloop Alert, after a fight of eight 
minutes, without losing 
a man. But that was 
nothing compared to 
what happened six 
days later, when the 
44-gun frigate Consti- 
tution, Captain Isaac 
Hull, after a half- 
hour's fight in the 
Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, captured the 
58-gun frigate Guer- 
"i^re. The British 
;hip lost 100 men, her 
hree masts with all 
heir rigging were shot away 




ISAAC HULL.l 



and her hull was so cut 
ip that she had to be left to sink ; the American ship 

1 From The Analectic Magazine, vol. L 



290 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. xin 




had fourteen 
men killed and 
wounded, and 
within an hour 
or so was ready 
for another 

fight. On the 
13th of Octo- 
ber, the sloop 
Wasp captured 
the British sloop 
Frolic. On the 
25th, the frigate 
United States, 
Captain Deca- 
tur, captured 
the frigate Ma- 

THE CONSTITUTION.! CCdOUlan, Off 

the island of Madeira, after a fight of an hour and a half. 
The British ship lost 106 men, was totally dismasted, and 

1 From a painting by Marshall Johnson, Jr., owned by Benjamin F. 
Stevens, Boston, Mass. This noble frigate, one of the most famous ships 
known to history, was built at Hart's shipyard, in Boston, and launched 
October 21, 1797, at the place where Constitution Wharf now stands. 
She was coppered by Paul Revere, and first went to sea in August, 1798, 
under Commodore Nicholson, In 1833, she was pronounced unsea- 
worthy, and it was decided to destroy her. It was then that Olivei 
Wendell Holmes wrote his famous poem Old Ironsides. 

" Ay, tear her tattered ensign down I 

Long has it waved on high, 
And many an eye has danced to see 

That banner in the sky ; 
Beneath it rung the battle shout. 

And burst the cannon's roar; — 
The meteor of the ocean air 

Shall sweep the clouds no more. 

" Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, 

Where knelt the vanquished foe, I 

When winds were hurrying o'er the flood, ', 

And waves were white below. 



§113. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 29 1 

had nearly lOO shot holes in her hull, but was brought 
away as a prize ; Decatur lost twelve men, and his ship 
was scatheless. On the 29th of December, the Consti- 
tution, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, met the 
British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil ; when, after 
two hours' firing, the Java struck her colors, she had lost 
230 men, and was a total wreck. A similar result at- 
tended the fight in the following February, between the 
sloop Hornet, Captain Lawrence, and the British brig 
Peacock, which sank before her crew could be taken off. 
It must be remembered that, when these things hap- 
pened, the English and French navies had been fighting 
for more than twenty years, and in such single combats 
the English had captured hundreds of ships and had lost 
only five. But now, in the course of six months, in six 
fights with American vessels, the British had lost six 
ships and taken none. This was partly because the 
Americans built better ships, partly because our crews 
,were better disciplined, and our gunners more accurate 
in their firing. One sagacious British captain perceived 
this, and won success by adopting American methods 
of training his force. This was Captain Philip Broke, 

No more shall feel the victor's tread, 

Or know the conquered knee; — 
The harpies of the shore shall pluck 

The eagle of the sea 1 

" O, better that her shaUered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ; 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep, 

And there should be her grave ; 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, 

The lightning and the gale ! " 

This poem aroused such a protest that the destruction of the venerable 
hip was averted. She was thoroughly repaired, and put to sea again in 
834. She may be seen to-day (1905) in the Navy Yard at Charlestown, 
vlass. 



292 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

in command of the frigate Shannon; on June i, 1813, 
he captured the frigate Chesapeake near Boston 
chesa- harbor. The Americans lost 148 men, and the 
ped e. British 83. The Chesapeake's commander, 
Captain Lawrence, late of the Hornet, was mortally 
wounded, and, as he was carried below, exclaimed, ^ 
"Don't give up the ship!" For this welcome victory, 
Captain Broke was at once made a baronet, and the ex- 
travagant jubilation in England shows what profound , 
chagrin had been felt there for ten months. 

It is unnecessary to recount all the sea fights of this 
war. But it should be remembered how Captain Porter, , 
in the Essex, cruised a whole ysar in the Pacific Ocean, j 
capturing the enemy's merchant ships, and at last, in^ 
other sea March, 1 8 14, was attacked in the harbor of' 
fights. Valparaiso by two British frigates and forced to 

surrender. In that bloody fight was a young midship- 
man, David Farragut, at the beginning of a great career. ' 
In the following summer, at different times, the Wasp 
captured two British sloops, her equals in force, in the 
English Channel. But it was reserved for the gallant 
Constitution, endeared to the people under her nickname 
"Old Ironsides," to cap the climax. In February, 181 5, 
as she was cruising off the island of Madeira, with Cap- 
tain Stewart in command, ignorant of the fact that the 
war had ended, she was attacked by two British vessels, ' i 
the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, and after a' 
brisk action of forty minutes she captured them both. 

114. Leading Events of the "War. The moral effect 
of these superb sea fights was tremendous ; but other- 
wise we gained not much from them. In spite of such 
victories, we could not prevent the British navy from 
blockading portions of our coast. On land we suffered 
many reverses. To conquer Canada was not so easy as 



§ 114. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 293 

it seemed, even if the New England states had cordially 
cooperated in it, which they did not. The experiences of 
the year 1775 had shown that the military approaches 
from the populous parts of New England through the 
wilderness to Montreal and Quebec were ex- ,, 

"^ Upper and 

tremely difficult. There was no good land Lower 
route east of Lake Champlain. The points on 
the frontier where Canada most closely touched thf^ 
United States were about Niagara and Detroit. This 
portion of British America was then known as Upper 
Canada, and since 1793 it had Toronto for its capital, 
while the old French country, which Wolfe had con- 
quered, with Quebec for its capital, was called Lower 
Canada.^ The two provinces had in 1812 a population 
of somewhat more than 300,000, at least three-fourths of 
which was in the lower province. 

The sentiment of the people of Upper Canada was 
actively hostile to the United States. The province had 
been settled largely by Tories who had left the United 
.States because of ill-treatment received during the War 
of Independence and afterwards. They were ^ . . 

' -^ Tones in 

accustomed to look upon the people of the Upper 

United States in the light of oppressors ; now 

they were called upon to regard them in the light of 

invaders. These Canadian loyalists found an able and 

/aliant leader in General Isaac Brock, who 'after much 

honorable service in Europe had since 1802 been living 

n Canada. 

! The region about Detroit was then so remote from 

:ivilization as to render military operations very difficult 

I'or either party, and an element of disaster for the Amer- 

' * Upper Canada is now called Ontario and Lower Canada is called 
■Quebec. The seats of government are still the cities of Toronto and 
Quebec. 



I 



294 '^^^ FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

icans lurked in the fact that this war against Great Brit- 
ain was complicated with an Indian war which we could 
not have avoided in any event. For some time 
the famous Shawnee chieftain, Tecumseh, had 
been entertaining a scheme like that of Pontiac, for unit- 
ing a large number of Indian tribes to drive back the 
steadily advancing westward wave of white settlers. Te- 
cumseh's brother, known as the Prophet, having begun 
the war prematurely, in 1811, had been totally defeated 
by General Harrison at Tippecanoe. At the first news 
of war between the United States and Great Britain, 
Tecumseh joined the British and was able to furnish 
important assistance to General Brock. 

The invasion was begun July 12, 1812, when General 
William Hull, governor of Michigan Territory, crossed the 
river from Detroit to Sandwich, with about 1,200 men.^ 
The alliance of Tecumseh with the British made this 
attempt impossible from the start. The Americans had 
no naval force upon Lake Erie, to maintain communica- 
tions between Detroit and the settled country in Ohio, 
and without such a force it was not only impossible for 
an American army to make any headway in Canada ; it ; 
Surrender was impossible cvcu to hold Detroit. The In- 
of Detroit, (jjans Captured Mackinaw and Fort Dearborn 
(Chicago), where they massacred their prisoners. Brock, , 
with 1,330 men, advanced against Hull, who retired into 
Detroit ; and when Brock was preparing to assault that 
stronghold, Hull surrendered it to avoid useless waste of 
life. Popular indignation demanded a victim, and Hull 
was tried for neglect of duty and condemned to death, 
but fortunately was pardoned by President Madison. It , 
has since been made clear that Hull, a man whose brav- 
ery and integrity were unimpeachable, acted with sound 
military judgment, and deserved no blame. 

1 This is about the correct number ; it is often overstated as 2,500. 



§ >i4- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



295 



Brock, who was knighted for his victory, was near the 
end of his brief career. A force of 6,000 men, chiefly 
mihtia, under General Stephen Van Rensselaer, was gath- 
ered on the New 
York side of Niag- 
ara River. Before 
daybreak of Octo- 
ber 13,1812, a van- 
guard of ^ , , 

° Battle of 

1,500 Queenston 
1 Heights. 

crossed 

in boats and as- 
saulted the heights 
at Queenston. 
Sir Isaac Brock 
soon arrived upon 
the scene with re- 
inforcements for 
the gallant defend- 
ers, and was slain 
in a desperate 
struggle in which 
the Americans 
:aptured the posi- 
:ion. To ensure 
;he victory it was 
lecessary that at least a portion of their 4,500 comrades 
;hould cross the river and join them. But, to Van Rens- 
elaer's disgust, the militia, relying upon a statute which 
'xempted them from serving outside of their state, re- 
used to stir. Canadian reinforcements arrived upon the 
cene, and the captors of Queenston Heights were over- 
whelmed and captured. During Brock's funeral services, 
le stars and stripes flew at half mast on Fort Niagara, 




BROCK MONUMENT AT QUEENSTON. 



I 



296 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

and American guns kept time with the British guns in 
solemn tribute to the fallen leader. In the chief com- 
mand at the West, Hull was succeeded by Harrison, who 
set out to recover Detroit, but British and Indi- 
of the Great ans, undcr General Proctor, defeated his ad- 
vanced guard at the River Raisin (January 22, 
1 81 3). For years afterward, the River Raisin was a 
name of horror, for the Indians murdered all the prison- 
ers. Harrison's progress was checked. Without control 
of Lake Erie it was impossible to achieve a success at 
Detroit. 

Instead of conquering Canada, it began to look as if 
we might lose the northwestern territory, or a great part j 
of it. But before the British could take it from us they 
must control Lake Erie, and as the Americans had at 
last waked up to this fact, their diligence on these inland 
waters increased. At first a fleet equipped and com- 
manded by Commodore Chauncey gained control of Lake 
Ontario. In May, 18 13, a land force of about 2,500 
Americans, aided by this fleet, captured Toronto (then 
called York) and burned the public buildings. 

Such incidents stimulated the British to renewed 
exertions, which led, on September 10, to a memorable 
battle on Lake Erie. The British and American fleets 
were about equal in strength. The former consisted of 
six ships with sixty -three guns in all, and was com- 
manded by one of Nelson's veterans. Captain Barclay. 
There were nine American vessels, of smaller size, car- 
rying fifty-four heavier guns. It was but a few weeks 
since a considerable part of this fleet was growing in the 
neighboring forests. The young captain whose 
of Lake marvclous exertions had built and armed it, 

Erie 

Oliver Hazard Perry, had never been in ac- 
tion before. His flagship was named the Lawrence, 1 



298 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIIL 



and a blue pennon at her masthead bore the dying 

words of the brave cap- 
tain of the Chesapeake. 
The Lawrence fought the 
two heaviest British ships, 
keeping their full force 
directed upon herself, un- 
til only Perry and eight of 
the crew were left. With 
these, the captain jumped 
into a boat, carrying his 
flag in hand, and was 
rowed through the midst 
of the enemy's fire to the 
Niagara. There he hoisted 
his flag, and, in a splendid 
charge, broke the British line and captured their whole 
fleet. His dispatch announcing the victory was brief 
and telling : " We have met the enemy, and they are 




O. H. PERRY.l 



c^rvo 



^(f^^, t(^ mux^ /rcff>e^iPH3 ^teotrO 



(^y^f-Tvr^ 



COMMODORE PERRY'S LETTER. 
{_By per»iissio>i 0/ Harper Gf Brothers.) 

ours ! " It was Perry who turned the scales of war. 
His victory enabled Harrison to enter Canada, where 
he utterly defeated Proctor and Tecumseh in the battle 

* After an engraving in The Analectic Magazine for December, 1813. 
The original painting is now in the New York City Hall. 



§ II4- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



299 



of the Thames. Tecumseh was killed in the battle, and 
Detroit was presently recovered. 

The next summer, 18 14, the Americans tried to invade 
Canada by way of the Niagara River. Jacob Brown 
and Winfield Scott 
crossed the river, and 
fought two bloody bat- 
tles at Chippewa, July 
5, and at Lundy's 
Lane, July 25, but 
were obliged to retreat. 
Later in the season, 
two British assaults 
on Fort Erie were 
repulsed. At the 
same time, the British 
tried to invade New 
York, as Burgoyne 
had done, but their 
fleet was destroyed by Commodore Macdonough in a 
hard-fought battle on Lake Champlain, and their army 
was thus obliged to retreat into Canada. 

Our southwestern frontier was in Alabama, where the 
Creek Indians began hostilities, in August, 1 8 1 3, The war in 
with a frightful massacre of men, women, and ^^^ ^°""'' 
children, at Fort Mimms. Then Andrew Jackson, with 
his Tennessee troops and a few United States regulars, 
made a bloody campaign of nearly seven months, ending 
with the great battle of Tallapoosa, in March, 18 14, 
'which finally broke the Indian power in the Southwest. 

In that very month Napoleon was dethroned, and so 
' England was able to send more troops to America. In 

* After Stuart's painting, owned by Mqcdonough's descendants, and 
now hanging in the rooms of the Century Club, New York. 




THOMAS MACDONOUGH.i 



300 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

August, a small British force entered the city of Wash- 
ington, which was very inadequately defended, and burned 
several public buildings, in reprisal for those that had 
been burned at Toronto. They next tried to attack Bal- 
timore, but were repulsed. No military purpose was 
subserved by these proceedings. 

The next and last movement of the British was 
against New Orleans. An army of 12,000 men, under 
Sir Edward Pakenham, landed below that city in De- 
cember. General Jackson, with about half as many 
men, awaited attack in a strongly intrenched position. 
It was foolish in Pakenham to try an assault, but he and 
his men were Wellington's veterans, and no such word 
as " defeat " was in their dictionary. But the 8th of 
January, 181 5, wrote that word for them in big letters. 
Their assault upon Jackson's lines lasted about twenty- 
five minutes ; then they made all haste from the field, 
leaving 2,600 killed and wounded. Pakenham was 
among the slain. The American loss was only eight 
killed and thirteen wounded, for they kept mowing 
down the British ranks so fast that the latter had no 
chance to return their fire. Never in all the history of 
England was a British army so badly defeated. This 
affair made Andrew Jackson the most prominent per- 
sonage in the United States. 

This war was always unpopular in New England, and 
^, „ with the Federalist party, or what was left of 

The Hart- ^ -^ ' 

ford Con- it. In December, 18 14, some of the Federal- 
ist leaders met at Hartford and passed resolu- 
tions. Among other things, they demanded that cus- 
tom house duties collected in New England should be 
paid to the states within whose borders they were col- 
lected, and not to the United States. This would have ; 
virtually dissolved the Union. 



§ 114- THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 3OI 

But on Christmas eve, 1814, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Ghent, between the American and British 
commissioners who had been discussing matters ever 
since August. Those were not the days of The Treaty 
telegraphs, and the last victories on land and °^ Ghent, 
sea were won without knowing that peace had already 
been made. The treaty left things just as they were 
before the war began. But the war had not been fought 
for nothing. It had strengthened the American feeling 
of nationality, and it had shown that the Period of 
Weakness, for this new nation, was coming to an end. 
After our naval victories, and the thunderbolt at New 
Orleans, no European nation was likely to think it worth 
while to insult the United States. 



topics and questions. 

103. The Country and the People. 

1. The United States a third-rate power in 1789. 

2. The occupations of the people. 

3. The isolation of the states. 

4. The great cities at this time. 

5. Their rural aspect. 

6. The furnishing of city houses. 

7. The amusements of city people. 

8. Farmers' homes and their furnishing. 

9. The country kitchen and its appointments. 
10. Travel, and its rarity. 

104. Elements of Progress. 

1. Natural sources of wealth. 

2. The age of machinery. 

3. The need of a strong federal government. 

4. The need of a strong local government. 

5. The experience of a century with each. 
•ro5. Hamilton and the Assumption of Debts. 

1. The pressure of the money question. 

2. Washington's secretary of the treasury. 

3. A plan to pay the debts of Congress. 

4. The wisdom of the plan. 



302 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

5. The constitutional objection urged by some. 

6. Hamilton and Jefferson on the Elastic Clause. 

7. The first great division into parties. 

8. How the North and the South divided. 

9. Fixing the site for the federal capital. 

106. The Tariff ; War with the Indians. 

1. Why did Congress need a revenue ? 

2. What is the advantage of an indirect tax ? 

3. How did Hamilton raise money ? 

4. What other use of the tariff did he advise ? 

5. What trouble came from his whiskey tax ? 

6. What did the Indians contend for in the Northwest ? 

7. What battles were fought, and with what result ? 

107. Foreign Affairs ; Federalists and Republicans. 

1. What Americans were friendly to France, and why? 

2. What Americans were friendly to England, and why f 

3. Give an account of Citizen Genet. 

4. What troubles with England arose after 1783 ? 

5. Jay's treaty accomplished what ? 

6. The Federalists held what views ? 

7. What views were they accused of having ? 

8. The Republicans held what views ? 

9. What views were they charged with holding ? 
10. Give an account of the election of 1796. 

108. The Quarrel with France. 

1. French wrath against the United States. 

2. The X. Y. Z. dispatches. 

3. The response of the United States. 

4. Truxtun's naval victories. 

5. Adams's sacrifice for peace. 

109. The Alien and Sedition Laws. 

1. The purpose of the Alien Act. 

2. The purpose of the Sedition Act. 

3. The constitutionality of these acts. 

4. The effect of these acts on the Federalist party. 

5. Virginia's action about these laws. 

6. Kentucky's action about them. 

7. The objection to nullification. 

8. The triumph of the Republicans. 

9. The trouble in electing the vice-president. 
10. The twelfth amendment to the Constitution. 



Ch. XIII. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 3O3 

no. Louisiana, Oregon, and Tripoli. 

1. Give an account of Thomas Jefferson, dealing (a) with his 

scholarship, (i) with his habits, (c) with his doctrines, 
and (^) with some people's fear of him. 

2. What was the extent of the Louisiana territory ? 

3. Show how it changed hands before Napoleon's sale of it. 

4. Why did Napoleon sell it to the United States ? 

5. What has been the effect of the purchase on the United 

States? 

6. Tell about the Oregon territory before 1804. 

7. What was accomplished by the Lewis and Clark expe- 

dition ? 

8. Describe the piracy of Tripoli and other Mahometan 

states. 

9. What demand was made upon the United States ? 

10. What was the American response .'' 

11. What led to Jefferson's reelection ? 

12. Tell about the duel of Burr and Hamilton. 

13. What subsequently became of Burr? 
III. The Embargo Act. 

1. The mercantile marine of the United States. 

2. The decrees of France and England about neutral ships. 

3. The effect of these decrees upon American ships. 

4. The impressment of seamen from the Chesapeake. 

5. The purpose of the Embargo Act. 

6. The effect of the Embargo Act. 

7. The feeling about a third term for a president. 

8. The result of the election of 1808. 

9. The fate of the Embargo Act. 
(12. James Madison. 

1. The fine traits of the fourth president. 

2. His aversion to war. 

jifiS. Second War with Great Britain. 

i I. Napoleon's duplicity about non-intercourse. 

2. England's refusal to repeal her decrees. 

3. Hostilities with England. 

4. The country outraged by Napoleon. 

5. War with England preferred to war with France. 

6. War declared under peculiar conditions. 

7. The election of 181 2. 

8. Six naval victories. 



304 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

9. The novelty and the cause of these British defeats. 
ID. The British capture of the Chesapeake. 
II. The Essex, the Wasp, and the Constitution. 
114, Leading Events of the War. 

1. Canada and its proposed conquest. 

2. Tecumseh and his scheme. 

3. Hull's surrender of Detroit. 

4. The battle of Queenston Heights. 

5. The failure to recover Detroit. 

6. The battle of Lake Erie. 

a. How it came to be fought. 

b. The building of the American fleet. 

c. The heroism of Perry. 

d. The consequences of the victory. 

7. Renewed effort to invade Canada. 

8. Fighting the Creeks. 

9. The attack upon Washington. 

10. Jackson and the battle of New Orleans. 

11. The treaty of peace. 

12. The war not fought in vain. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Why is The Period of Weakness so called ? 

2. Where may houses and furnishings of the last century still be 

seen ? In what parts of the country are they unknown ? 
What customs of the last century are still observed, and 
where ? Where is one more likely to see them at the pres- 
ent time ? What old-time customs, arts, and constructions 
are people fond of reproducing to-day ? 

3. What are some of the oldest towns and cities in our country ? 

Select one of them, and tell what traces of the last century 
it still retains. Compare it in age with European cities you 
have in mind. Why is an old city more interesting than a 
new one ? 

4. Is the George Washington of our thought to-day like the real 

Washington of the Revolution ? What things do we prob- 
ably leave out of our Washington that belonged to the real 
one ? Is the Benedict Arnold of our thought to-day like the 
real Arnold ? If not, what is the difference ? Mention other 
Americans whose reputations for better or for worse have 
increased with time. May not events as well as men become 



Ch. XIII. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 3O5 

different in the popular thought from what they really were ? 
If so, give illustrations. 

5. What accusations were brought against Washington at differ- 

ent times by his opponents 1 (See McMaster's History of 
the People of (he United States.) 

6. Wherein was Washington especially great ? 

7. What is a tariff ? A tariff for revenue only ? A tariff for pro- 

tection ? A moderate tariff 1 A prohibitory tariff ? What 
is free trade ? Has there always been free trade between 
the states .'' What officers and buildings does a tariff make 
necessary ? What offenses does a tariff make possible .'' 

8. Show how a poor man whose tax bill is nothing pays taxes in 

substance if not in form. Show how some of the money it 
costs him to live goes to the town or city, some to the 
county, some to the state, and some to the nation. Does 
anybody succeed in escaping payment of taxes.? Has 
American history been affected by questions of taxation ? 
If so, how .-* 

9. Tell about the French Revolution of 1789. Had American 

events anything to do with it ? If so, in what way ? 
to. Would you have been a Federalist or a Republican in Washing- 
ton's time ? Give reasons for your answer. Are the Repub- 
licans of the Civil War and since that time the same his- 
torically as the Jeffersonian RepubHcans ? Explain. What 
differences were there between these two Republican parties 
in respect {a) to the idea of a strong central government, 
and (J?) to nullification. Tell about T/ie Federalist as to its 
authorship, its purpose, its influence, and its fame. 

11. Why were President Adams and Vice-President Jefferson 

badly matched politically t How did it happen .? Why is 
such a thing not likely to happen again .'' 

12. What reasons had Americans for sympathizing with France? 

What reasons had they for not sympathizing with France ? 

13. What is bribery ? What shapes may it take .? What is there 

wrong about it? What instances of bribery, or attempted 
bribery, are there in American history ? Why is it an insult 
to an honest man to offer him a bribe ? Which is the 
greater offender, the briber or the bribed ? How was it 
when America bribed the Barbary pirates ? 

14. Are newspapers free to-day to bring Congress or the president 

into " contempt or disrepute " by what they publish ? Why 



306 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

is it undesirable to enact laws against such publications? 
Is the press absolutely free under our laws to say any gross 
or untrue thing it pleases about public men ? 

15. Ought not an unconstitutional act of Congress to be nullified? 

Why should not a state be permitted to nullify it ? What 
way of nullifying such an act has been provided ? 

16. What different states have advocated nullification at different 

times ? Why is there so little talk of nullification to-day ? 

17. Was Jefferson a strict constructionist of the Constitution or a 

loose one ? How did he construe the Constitution when he 
bought Louisiana ? 

18. Why was it an inglorious exploit to burn the public buildings 

at Washington ? 

19. Was the War of 181 2 one that could have been honorably 

averted ? Compare it with the War of the Revolution in 
respect {a\ to causes, {b) to duration, {c) to American general- 
ship on land, {d) to conflicts on the sea, {e) to the authority 
of the government that carried it on, (_/") to the magnitude of 
the principles at stake, and (g) to results. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

The following topics are selected from A History of the People 
of the United States, by John Bach McMaster, published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. This work is intended to cover 
the period from the American Revolution to the Civil War. At 
present (1900) it consists of five volumes that bring events down 
to the opening of Jackson's administration. While this work deals 
with political parties and controversies, wars and rebellions, the 
great leaders of affairs, and the larger features of national develop- 
ment, it is of special interest to teachers and pupils because of the 
prominence it gives to the real every-day life of the people, to their 
likings and aversions, to their homes, occupations, and amusements, 
to the progress of invention and learning among them, to the growth 
Df the humane spirit, — in short, to those numerous and varied ele- 
ments which lie beneath the surface of what is popularly known as 
history, and form the soil whence it issues. 

I. The State of America in 1784, i. 1-102: 

1. Boston in 1784. 4. The country minister. 

2. The New England farmer. 5. The old-time doctor. 

3. Times of the red school- 6. The newspapers. 

house. 



Ch. Xlir. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 307 

7. Letters. 15. The Georgia planter. 

8. Carrying the mail. 16. The Virginia gentleman. 

9. Travel by land and by sea. 1 7. Books. 

10. New York city in 1784. 18. The fine arts. 

11. Albany in 1784. 19. Baltimore in 1784. 

12. Seaport towns. 20. Opposition to the theatre. 

13. Philadelphia in 1784. 21. Condition of the laborer. 

14. Pittsburgh in 1784. 22. Prisons and criminals. 

2. The Federal Government, i. 525-604 : 

1. The tardy assembling of the first Congress. 

2. The crusade against foreign goods. 

3. Debate on titles for the president. 

4. Slavery and the slave trade. 

5. The changing centre of population. 

6. Presidential etiquette. 

7. Washington's tour of the country. 

3. The Struggle for Neutrality, ii. 89-108 : 

1. Illustrations of strong sympathy with France. 

2. How Citizen Genet carried a high hand. 

3. How Washington was roundly abused. 

4. An ocean duel between French and English. 

5. Genet's failure and recall. 

6. Hardships in settling Ohio. 

7. Settlements in the interior of New York. 

8. Eli Whitney and the cotton gin. 

9. Samuel Slater and the first cotton mill. 

10. How the British searched American ships. 

11. The beginning of the American navy. 

12. What the Republicans (also known as Democrats) wanted. 

13. The peace policy of Washington. 

4. Town and Country Life in 1800, ii. 538-5S2 : : 

1. Fires and firemen. 11. Discomforts of travel. 

2. Fire insurance. 12. Country inns. 

3. French fashions. 13. New England meeting-houses 

4. Ball rooms and theatres. 14. The growth of impiety. 

5. Plays and players. 15. Fishing villages. 

6. Automatons and shows. 16. The New England Primer. 

7. A balloon ascension. 17. Western pioneers. 

8. Museums and the circus. 18. Paths of emigration. 

9. The Lancaster turnpike. 19. Frontier life. 

10. German farmers. 20. The Kentucky revival. 



3o8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

5. State of the People in 18 12, iii. 459-540: 

1. Growth in thirty years. 12. Horse-power railways. 

2. Streams of emigrants. 13. Rise of manufactures. 

3. The rage for turnpikes. 14. Pay of workmen. 

4. Cost of carrying goods. 15. Labor societies. 

5. Surveying the coast. 16. Strikes. 

6. Roads and canals. 17. Slavery discussions. 

7. Towns on the Ohio. 18. Putting down the slave trade 

8. Trade in the Southwest. 19. Tecumseh. 

9. Steamboat experiments. 20. The Prophet, his brother. 

10. Robert Fulton. 21. William Henry Harrison. 

11. Steaming up the Hudson. 22. Tippecanoe. 

6. Miscellaneous Topics from vols, i., ii., and iii. : 

1. Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution. 

2. The first tour of Lafayette in America. 

3. The voyage of the Empress to China. 

4. A serious rebellion subdued in Massachusetts. 

5. The character of Benjamin Franklin. 

6. The character of Patrick Henry. 

7. The great Whiskey Insurrection. 

8. Election frauds in 1796. 

9. John Randolph of Roanoke. 

10. The death of Alexander Hamilton. 

11. Aaron Burr and his wild schemes. 

12. The city of New Orlea,ns in its early days. 

13. Treatment of criminals in the territories. 

14. The expedition of Lewis and Clark. 

15. The Barbary pirates brought to terms. 

16. The impressment of American seamen by the British. 

17. The search of the Chesapeake. 

18. The long Embargo, and the distress it caused. 

19. New England's attitude toward the Embargo. 

20. Jefferson at Monticello. 

21. The President and the Little Belt. 

22. The youth of Henry Clay. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

WESTWARD EXPANSION. i8 15- 1850. 

115. The Close of a Warlike Period. The year 
18 1 5 marks the begmning of a new era in America and 
in Europe. It saw the end of the terrible Napoleonic 
wars, to which our second war with Great Britain was 
merely an appendage. Since 181 5, the civilized world 
has been more successful than ever before in keeping 
clear of war. It is close upon eighty years since 181 5, 
and in this time Europe has seen about ten years of 
war, and the United States about six years ; but in the 
eighty years before 1815, Europe saw about fifty years 
of war, and the United States as many as thirty years. 
In going back still further, we should find for Europe 
and the world in general a still worse record. 

With the peace that began in 181 5 there came many 
improvements and reforms. A change of industry had 
been going on with the application of steam and ma- 
chinery to manufacturing ; and now that the war was 
over, the effects of this change began to be felt every- 
where. Wealth and comfort were increased, and ques- 
tions of domestic policy began to have more interest for 
people than questions growing out of warfare. 

Monroe's; 0umints;trationflf. 

Devwcratic-Republican : l8iy-l82§. 

116. The Era of Good Feeling. Before Jefferson's 
election to the presidency, the Federalists were the 



3IO 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch, XIV. 



national party, and when threats of nullification or se- 
cession were heard, it was from Republicans, as in the 
Kentucky Resolutions of 1799. But after Jefferson's 
election the Republicans came to be more and more 
the national party, and when threats of secession were 
heard, it was from Federalists, chiefly in New Eng- 
land. As the national spirit grew, such threats fell 
Theeiec- into disfavor. The Hartford Convention killed 
I8i6°and ^^^ Federalist party. In 18 16, their candidate, 
1820. Rufus King, received only 34 electoral votes 
against 187 for the Republican candidate, James Mon- 
roe. In 1820, the Federalists put no candidate into the 
field, and Monroe's reelection was practically unanimous. 
Since the two elections of George Washington, that of 
James Monroe, in 1820, is the only one in which there 

has been no opposing 
candidate. His presi- 
dency was, therefore, 
called " the era of 
good feeling." For 
great powers or ac- 
complishments, he 
cannot be compared 
with any of the first 
four presidents. He 
was a plain, honest, 
able citizen, with 
many virtues and 
JAMES MONROE.i much popukrlty. 

117. Monroe's Foreign Policy. During the late war, 
Florida had been in a condition of anarchy, and the 
Seminole Indians molested the frontier of Georgia. 
Since the Spanish government could not or would not j 

1 After a painting by Vanderlyn, in tlie New York City Hall. I 




§117. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 3II 

maintain order there, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida 
and virtually took possession of the country, purchase 
His conduct excited hot debate in Congress °^ ^io"da. 
and in the Cabinet, but the matter was finally adjusted 
by buying Florida and paying Spain $5,000,000 for it. 
This was done in 18 19. 

Spain's hands were tied at that time by the revolt of her 
Mexican and South American colonies, which set them- 
selves up, one after another, as independent republics. 
In 181 5, the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and Austria 
formed a compact known as the Holy Al- The Holy 
liance, the real object of which was to uphold ^^''^"'=^- 
absolute monarchy, and to lend a hand wherever possi- 
ble in suppressing republican movements. There were 
indications that the Holy Alliance might assist in sub> 
duing Mexico and other Spanish-American states, and 
in such an event there was danger that those American 
countries might get divided up among European powers 
stronger than Spain. For example, Russia, which pos- 
sessed Alaska, and had lately established sundry trading 
posts upon the coast of California, might conclude to 
, take California in payment of services. To guard 
I against such complications, President Monroe declared, 
^in a message to Congress, in 1823, that the United 
States regarded the continents of North and ^^ ,, 

r, . . The Mon- 

South America as no longer open to coloniza- roe doc- 
tion by European powers ; and, further, that 
.any European attempt to interfere with any independent 
American government would be resented by the United 
States. To language of this sort the exploits of Andrew 
Jackson and of " Old Ironsides " had given a serious 
meaning. Ten years earlier, all Europe would have 
laughed at it ; but now England sympathized with it, and 
the Holy Alliance abandoned its schemes. Monroe's 



312 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



message was, in the European money market, considered 
equivalent to a decisive victory for the Spanish-Ameri- 
can states ; their funds rose in value at once. The next 
year, Russia made a treaty with us in which she aban- 
doned all claim to the Pacific coast south of 54° 40', the 
southern limit of Alaska. 

118. The Unexpected G-rowth of Negro Slavery. 
Between 1790 and 1820, the population of the United 
States increased from nearly four to nearly ten million. 
The public revenue had increased twice as fast as the 
population, that is, fivefold, from five to twenty-five 
Westward million dollars. Some of this increase of popu- 
lation and business was always pushing west- 



growth. 



ward in spite of grave obstacles, the chief of which had 
been the danger from Indians and the difificulty of mov- 
ing persons and goods from place to place. But the 
victories of Harrison and Jackson had overthrown the 
Indian power headlong as far as the Mississippi. As to 

locomotion, won- 
derful things had 
lately been done. 
In 1807, Robert 
Fulton's steam- 
boat, the Cler- 
mont, the first 
successful steam- 
boat, began run- 
ning up and 
down the Hud- 
son River. In 
1 8 II, a steamboat was launched on the Ohio River, at 
Pittsburgh, the " Gateway of the West," and it was not 
long before the western rivers were lively with swift 

^ From an old print. 




Fulton's steamboat, the clermont.i 



§ii8. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 313 

little puffing and wheezing vessels, carrying settlers 
with their household goods, farm produce and tools, 
bales of merchandise, traders, and land speculators. As 
soon as the war was over, the effects of this began to be 
seen in the growing up of new western states. Indiana 
was added to the Union in 1816, Mississippi in 18 17, 
Illinois in 18 18, Alabama in 18 19. With this westward 
growth, a new and startling question was suddenly to 
spring up and disturb the quiet of the " era of good 
feeling." 

It will be noticed that, in the admission of the above- 
named states to the Union, a kind of balance was pre- 
served between North and South ; Mississippi . 
was a counterweight to Indiana, and Alabama the 
to Illinois. This was not an accident. It was 
intended to keep the balance as even as possible between 
the slave states and the states which had no slaves. Let 
us see why this was thought to be necessary. 

Before the Revolution, all the colonies had negro 
slaves. In Queen Elizabeth's time, nobody realized the 
wickedness of slavery, and so all the colonies started 
with it. But in the colonies north of Maryland there 
was little for negroes to do that could not better be 
done by white men ; so there was no demand for negro 
labor, and slavery was gradually abolished with no diffi- 
culty. But in the South it was different. Cheap negro 
labor was in great demand for the cultivation of rice and 
indigo, cotton and tobacco ; and everybody took it for 
igranted that negroes would not work except as slaves. 
This feeling was strongest in South Carolina and Georgia. 
Nevertheless, there was a good deal of opposition c,\^ 
10 slavery, even in such slave states as Virginia, expected to 
!md in Washington's time it was believed that 
ilavery, if let alone, would gradually die of itself. The 



314 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

Constitution gave to the United States government no 
right to interfere with slavery in states where it was 
already established. Some compromises were made in 
the Constitution which settled the slavery question for 
the whole country, as it was then confined to the east 
of the Mississippi River. 

But the institution of slavery, instead of dying out, 
suddenly took on new and vigorous life. The invention 
of steam-driven machines for spinning and 
takes on Weaving led to the growth of immense manu- 
factories in England, and every year there was 
a greater demand for cotton to be sent across the ocean 
and made into cloth. The country along the shores of 
the Gulf of Mexico became almost wholly devoted to 
raising cotton. This was greatly helped by the cotton 
gin, a very simple machine for cleaning the cotton fibre 
from the seed, invented, in 1 793, by Eli Whitney. This 
increased the demand for slave labor, and made south- 
erners anxious to defend the institution of slavery against 
possible attacks from the North. Thus, it became neces- 
sary to keep the representation in Congress as evenly 
balanced as possible ; and so, as new states were admit- 
ted into the Union, we see slave states and free states 
alternating, as, for example, when Mississippi counter- 
balanced Indiana, and Alabama served as an equipoise 
for Illinois. 

The territory northwest of the Ohio River — out of 
which have been made the five great states of Ohio, In- 
diana,- Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin — was first or- 
ganized as a territory by the Continental Congress, in 
rnu r^ J- ^7^7- It was then national domain; that is, it 

The Ordi- ' ' ' ' 

nance of belonged to the United States as a nation, and 

1787. 

had no other government except what was made 
for it by Congress. The famous Ordinance of 1787, 







-y- 



§ii8. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 315 

which organized that territory, prohibited slavery for- 
ever within its limits, and so all the states north of the 
Ohio came into the Union as free states. The Ohio 
River was the boundary line between freedom and slav- 
ery for black men. 

This boundary line ended at the Mississippi River; 
in what way should it be continued beyond ? The vast 
Louisiana territory was national domain. The first state 
made from it was Louisiana, which was admitted as a 
slave state, in 1812, without formidable opposition from 
the North. Now if the next state had been as far north 
as Minnesota, it might have been admitted as a free state 
without formidable opposition from the South. But it 
happened that the next state to be formed was Missouri, 
Just at that time, Maine, which had been, ever since 
1692, a sort of appendage to Massachusetts, was asking 
for admission to the Union. The southern members of 
Congress refused to consent to the admission of Maine 
unless the northern members should allow Missouri to 
come in as a slave state. There was a great discussion 
over this question, which was settled, in 1820, ^, ,,. 

^ ' ' The Mis- 

by the famous Missouri Compromise. By this souri com- 

T, _ . . . , _ ^ . promise. 

arrangement, Missouri came into the Union as 
a slave state, but Congress took the parallel of 36° 30' as 
a dividing line through the rest of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, and prohibited slavery forever to the north of 
that line. That parallel was thenceforth known as the 
" Missouri Compromise Line." The person to whom 
most credit was due for the compromise was Henry Clay. 
It averted serious trouble between North and South on 
the slavery question for nearly thirty years, but it did 
lot satisfy everybody. Some southerners maintained 
hat Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the 
lational domain. 



3i6 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV, 



The elec- 
tion of 
1824. 



In the next election there were four candidates for the 
presidency, all called Republicans. They were 
John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts ; Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky ; William Crawford, of Geor- 
gia ; and Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. The latter 
was the most popular candidate, on account of his great 
victory over the British. He was also a man of humble 
birth, without education or other early advantages, and 




JOHN CUINCV ADAMS.l 

many persons wished to see such a man in the White 
House instead of such aristocratic gentlemen as had 
hitherto been our presidents. So Jackson had the great- 
est number of electoral votes, but no one had a majority, 
and the election was decided by the House of Represen- 
tatives. The House chose Adams for president. 

* From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. iv. 



5"^ 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



317 



^Dtttinisftration of 31olin ^uincp 0Dam0» 

National Republican : l82^-i82g. 

119. New Issues and a New Division of Parties. 
The Missouri Compromise quieted the slavery question 
for a while ; but other questions comino: up , 

' 1 , , Internal 

between 1820 and 1S30 brought about a new improve- 

division of parties. The first question related 

to what were called internal improvements. As the 




A CANAL WITH LUCK5. 



settled country expanded westward, better means of 
communication were needed ; there was a growing de- 
nand for new roads and canals, and for the improve- 
nent of rivers and harbors. One canal was finished 
n 1825, and the effects were great and immediate. It 



i 



3l8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

was the Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie with the 
Hudson River. .In 1820, it cost $8S to carry a ton of 
freight from Albany to Buffalo ; after the Erie Canal 
was finished, that ton could be carried for ^22.50, and 
the price went on falling till it reached ^6.50. That 
simple fact made central New York a great highway, 
and caused large cities to grow up there, and m^de it 
easy for emigrants to push on westward into the woods 
of Michigan. Thus, the great movement of population 
from New England into the Northwest was immensely 
stimulated, and New York became the most populous 
state in the Union instead of Virginia. 

Some people thought it would be a good plan to have 
all parts of the country brought into close communica- 
tion by a regular system of roads and canals, and that 
these should be constructed by the national government 
and paid for by taxation. There were other people who 
equally approved of building roads and canals, but 
thought it had much better be done by private enter- 
prise, aided perhaps by the state governments. They 
disapproved of having it done by the national govern- 
ment. 

During the war of 18 12-15, it had become difficult to > 
obtain manufactured goods from foreign coun- 
tries, and in some cases articles of inferior 
quality had begun to be made in the United States. 
After the war, manufacturers began to insist upon hav- | 
ing high duties put upon many foreign goods in order to 
raise the price, so that Americans might find it cheaper , 
to buy American goods. A tariff framed for such a pur- ' 
pose was called a " protective tariff," since its design 
was to protect American manufacturers against for- 
eign competition. A tariff framed without reference 
to such protection, but purely in order to obtain revenue 



§119. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 319 

for the jj^overnment, is called a " tariff for revenue only." 
Some authorities maintain that any tariff which should 
yield to the government a sufficient revenue would inci- 
dentally afford to our manufacturers all the protection 
they need. That is more or less what people have in 
mind when they speak about a " tariff for revenue with 
incidental protection." 

In Ouincy Adams's time, manufacturers generally, 
who were mostly in the northern and eastern states, 
wanted the tariff duties to be made as high as possible. 
But the southern people, devoted entirely to agriculture, 
wished to obtain foreign goods as cheaply as possible, 
and, therefore, favored a low tariff. 

Hamilton's Bank of the United States had been estab- 
lished in I7QI on a charter which expired in ^ 

' ^ . . . ' 1 he United 

181 1. It was again set going in 1816 on a new states 
twenty years' charter. There was always much 
opposition to such a bank; many feared it would get 
dragged into politics and become an engine of corrup- 
tion. The charter of the bank was to expire in 1836, 
and there was sure to be fierce opposition to its renewal. 
As a genera] rule, the people who favored internal im- 
provements at the national expense favored also a high 

■ tariff and the national bank. During Adams's adminis- 
tration, they became distinguished as National Republi- 
cans, because they were ready to increase the Democrats 

. powers of the national government. Their op- ^i"^^, ^g. 

I ponents, formerly called by the common name P"Wicans. 
of Democratic Republicans, dropped the latter part of 

• the name, and were thenceforth known simply as Demo- 

: crats. They denied that the national government had 
any constitutional authority to build roads and canals, 
or to impose a tariff for any other purpose than reve- 



320 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

niie, or to charter such a bank as that which Hamilton 
had founded. On the other hand, the National Repub- 
licans maintained that the Elastic Clause conferred 
upon the national government the right to do all these 
things.^ 

In the first trial of strength, the National Repub- 
licans won two decisive victories in Congress on the 
tariff question. The tariff bill passed in 1824 was 
highly protective, and that of 1828 still more so. The 
latter tariff gave offense to many people, especially in 
the South ; its enemies called it the " tariff of abomi- j 
nations." i 

In the next election, Adams and Jackson were the two \ 

candidates for the presidency. If they had been the 1 

only two candidates in 1824, Jackson would I 

tion of have been elected. In 1824, Adams had 84 1 

1S28 ■ 

electoral votes, while the other 177 were scat- 
tered among three candidates. In 1828, Adams had 

83 votes, while Jackson had 1 78, and was elected. j 

( 

3fiacfe0on'0 :aDmint0trattonsf, 

Democratic: l82g-l83'/. ' 

120. The Spoils System. Public opinion in America 
was all the time growing more and more democratic, and 
it was a common notion that there was something very 
democratic, and, therefore, meritorious, in what was 
called "rotation in office." Jackson was the first presi- 
dent to apply this principle to small federal officials, 
such as postmasters and revenue collectors, whose work 

1 The Constitution also authorizes Congress to lay and collect duties, 
to provide for the general welfare of the United States ; and to regulate 
commerce with foreign nations (Art. I., section viii., clauses i, 3) ; and the ' 
National Republicans held that these grants conveyed the power of la^ 
ing protective duties. 



§§ 120, 121. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



321 




has properly no connection with poHtics. From 1789 
to 1829, the number of removals of civil service officials 
had averaged less than two each year. During the year 
1829, Jackson turned at least 2,000 men out of office 
(including subordinate 
clerks), and filled their 
places with his own ad- 
herents. This practice 
has been continued by 
all subsequent presi- 
dents, although not with 
equal thoroughness. In 
this way there began 
with Jackson the bad 
habit of using public 
offices as rewards for 
partisan political ser- 
vices, a habit which has 
done more to degrade and corrupt public life in our 
country than all other circumstances taken together. 
Yet Jackson was a thoroughly honorable man, and had 
no idea of the harm that was to come from such a prac- 
tice. It came to be called the Spoils System, from 
the remark of a United States senator, that political 
warfare seemed to be conducted on the principle that 
("to the victors belong the spoils." 

j 121. Nullification. If Jackson did incalculable harm 
to the country by introducing the Spoils System, he 
did incalculable good by the prompt and determined 
;stand which he made against nullification. We have 
observed that the tariff of 1828 was extremely unpopular 
in the South. One of the greatest of southern states- 
,men, the illustrious John Caldwell Calhoun, of South 

' * From Parton's Life of Andrnv Jackson. 



ANDREW JACKSON. 1 



322 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch, XIV. 





HENRY CLAY. 



JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



Carolina, now maintained the right of any state to de- 
cide for itself whether an act of Congress were unconsti- 
tutional or not ; if the state should decide such an act 
to be unconstitutional, it might declare it to be null and 
void, and might resist its -execution within the limit of 
the state. This would be nullifying an act of Congress. 
It was feared that South Carolina would proceed, in ac- 
cordance with Calhoun's doctrine, to attempt to nullify 
the tariff of 1828, and refuse to allow the duties levied 
by it to be collected in her ports. Such an action would 
be a long step toward breaking up the Federal Union. 

Early in 1830, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, an- 
nounced the theory of nullification in a very powerful 
speech in the United States Senate. He was answered 
Hayne and by Daniel Wcbstcr, senator from Massachu- 
Webster. getts, in One of the greatest speeches in the 
English language. Such a speech was in itself proof 
that love for the Union had increased very much since 
Washington's presidency ; it did much to intensify that 
love, and served as a watchword for years to come. ' 



§ T2I. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



323 




DANIEL WEBSTER. 



The president was 
known to be hostile to 
protective tariffs, but those 
of the nullifiers who 
looked for sympathy from 
him were disap- jackson's 
pointed. OnApril ^"''"^^• 
13, 1830, some Democrats 
in Washington gave a 
dinner in commemoration 
of Jefferson's birthday, 
and Jackson was present. 
One or two toasts were 
given which hinted at nul- 
lification, when Jackson suddenly got up and volunteered 
a toast, " Our Federal Union ; it must be preser\'^ed ! " 
This was an unexpected bomb-shell for the nullifiers. 

During the year 1 832, a new tariff bill was passed, some- 
what modifying that of 1828, but failing to satisfy the 
;South. For the election of that autumn, the ^, , 

The elec- 

oresidential candidates were nominated for the tion of 

1832 

arst time in national conventions. Before that 
;ime, it was customary to nominate them by a party cau- 
cus in Congress, or by state legislatures, or by special 
ocal conventions. In 1832, there were three party nom- 
nations. One was that of the Anti-Mason party. In 
(826, one William Morgan, in western New York, who 
lad published a little book exposing some secrets of 
.^reemasonry, mysteriously disappeared, and was sup- 
posed to have been murdered by Freemasons. This 
.roused great excitement, and led to the formation of a 
•arty designed to exclude all Freemasons from office, 
he Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt, of Virginia, 
Dr president. The National Republicans nominated 



324 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

Henry Clay. The Democrats nominated Jackson. In 
the election, South Carolina passed by all these candi- 
dates, and gave her 1 1 votes to John Floyd, of Virginia ; 
Wirt got the 7 votes of Vermont ; Clay got 49 votes ; 
and Jackson 219. 

This great victory made Jackson's position very 
^ , ^ . strong. In December, a state convention in 

Defeat of ° ' 

nuiiifica- South Carolina declared the tariff of 1832 null 
and void, forbade the collection of duties at 
any port in the state, and threatened, if interfered with 
in these iDroceedings, to secede from the Union alto- 
gether. Jackson immediately issued a proclamation 
warning the people of South Carolina that any attempt 
to resist the Federal laws would be put down ; he 
sent Lieutenant David Farragut with a naval force to 
Charleston harbor, and made it clear that the army 
would be used if necessary. Soon afterward, through 
the efforts of Henry Clay, a tariff with lower duties, 
known as the Compromise Tariff, was passed, and to the 
mixture of threat with persuasion the nullifiers yielded. 
A great danger was averted for the time, and a pre- 
cedent of immense value was established by Jackson's 
prompt and decisive action. 

122. Overthrow of the United States Bank. Jack- 
son's hostility to the bank had been shown throughout 
his first term of office. In 1832, he vetoed the bill for 
its re-charter. In 1833, he ordered that public money 
should no longer be deposited in this bank, but distrib- 
uted among sundry state banks. In the way in which he 
did this he probably exceeded his constitutional powers, 
and the rest of his administration was largely consumed 
in a quarrel with Congress, in which, as in all his contests, 
he finally came off victorious. The Senate passed a 
resolution of censure upon him ; his ablest friend in that 



\ 122. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



325 




body, Thomas Benton, senator from Missouri, persisted 
In urging that the censure should be expunged, and, 
after a long struggle, he carried his point, early in 1837, 
The National Republicans, led by Clay, maintained 
that in his removal of the public deposits from the bank 
the president was usurp- 
ing arbitrary power and 
overriding constitutional 
checks. In the South 
there were many people 
who did not approve of 
nullification, but thought 
that the president had no 
right to call for military 
force to suppress it. These 
people were called " State 
Rights " men, and one of 
;heir principal leaders was 
[ohn Tyler, of Virginia. They were, in general, op- 
Dosed to a high tariff, a national bank, and internal im- 
orovements, and, therefore, agreed with the National 
R.epublicans in nothing except hostility to the Formation 
^resident. But in mutual opposition to Jack- ^ywg 
'.on and his supporters, these two groups of P^''*y- 
nen, the followers of Clay and the followers of Tyler, 
)egan to be drawn together. In 1834, the National 
Republicans began to call themselves Whigs, on the 
;round that Jackson was a kind of tyrant whom they 
'■pposed just as Whigs of an earlier time had opposed 
■ieorge III. This name pleased the Tyler men, who 
-resently called themselves " State Rights Whigs." 
■ These northern and southern wings of the new Whig 
arty had not quite come together in 1836. The State 

1 From Benton's TAiriy Yeari Fieza 



THOMAS HART BENTON. 1 



326 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



The elec- 
tion of 
1836. 



Rights men nominated Hugh White, of Tennessee, for 
president, and John Tyler for vice-president. 
The northern Whigs nominated WilHam Henry 
Harrison, a plain, honest soldier without much 

politics about him. The Democrats nominated Martin 

Van Buren, who obtained 1 70 electoraL votes against 124 

for all other candidates, and was elected. 



Vmx y5nttxv& ^Dmini^tration* | 

Democratic : 18J/-1841. 

123. A New Era of Progress. The ten years, 
1830-40, were remarkable as the beginning of a new 

era of progress throughout : 
the civilized world. Of i 
the many wonderful things ■■ 
that were done, we have 
room to mention only very 
few. There was a man 
then in England whose 
genius did more for roads i' 
and travel than all the gov- i 
ernments on earth could 1 
do. Roads with fixed rails, 
called tramways, had been 
in some use about mines, 
for drawing loads of coal. 
Steam engines had been for some time in use in boats 
and in factories. George Stephenson devised 
a steam engine that could run on wheels along 
a railway and drag carriages after it. Some people 
smiled at this wonderful invention, and one member of 
a parliamentary committee tried to quiz the inventor : 

1 From Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics, i. 369. 




GEORGE STEPHENSON.! 



The loco- 
motive. 



123- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



327 



* Suppose, Mr. Stephenson, that a cow were to get in 
"ront of your engine moving at full speed, what would 
lappen ? " If this bright man expected to hear a reply 
:hat the engine would probably be upset, he was disap- 
Dointed. Mr. Stephenson was a Northumberland man, 
ivith a strong accent, and his reply was, " It wad be vera 
Dad for the coo ! " 

The inventor of the railroad ought to be ranked among 
the chief builders of the American Union. We can now 




ONE OF THE FIRST RAILWAY TRAINS IN AMERICA.l 



50 from New York to Portland in Oregon in less time 
:han it would have taken us, in Ouincy Adams's presi- 
•lency, to go from New York to Portland in ^, ,, 

. ° • The bless- 

Mame. Thmk of the poor little wagons of ingsof 
■hose days struggling over muddy roads with 
heir farm produce or parcels of merchandise, and then 
hink of the enormous freight trains now rushing night 
ind day from end to end of the United States ! How 
mug and compact they make this vast country, and how 
•nuch easier to govern ! Railroads, too, enlarge people's 
ninds, for ease of travel and commerce brings us into 
oore frequent contact with other parts of the world, and 

* Taken from a facsimile of the original drawing, which is now in the 
ossession of the Connecticut Historical Society. This train was run on 
le Mohawk and Hudson railroad. The first excursion trip was made 
om Albany to Schenectady, on August 9, 1831. The locomotive was 
le third built in America for actual use. 



328 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

tends to rub off our prejudices and antipathies. In 1830, 
there were 23 miles of railroad in the United States ; by 
1840, there were 2818 miles, and for the next twenty 
years, the figures doubled every five years. They soon 1 
began to be as important as steamboats in extending our 
settlements westward, and after a while they became far 
more important. 

In 1836, anthracite coal was successfully used in pro- 
ducing steam, and, in the same year, John Ericsson in- 
vented the screw propeller, which required much less 
fuel than the paddle wheel. In 1838, steamships began j 
making regular trips across the Atlantic, and it 
fie and was not loug bcforc this began to increase our 
of pr(>'^"^ population by the increased influx of laborers' 
gress. from Europe. Then there were labor-saving 

machines, such as the McCormick reaper, invented in 
1831, and the Nasmyth steam hammer, in 1838 ; and it' 
was in 1836 that the Patent Office had so much work to: 
do that it was made a distinct bureau. In 1830, the city 
of New York was more than two centuries old, and its 
population had lately passed 200,000, while Brooklyn had 
about 1 2,000 ; the new and sudden growth was to carry 
the population of those cities within another sixty years 
to nearly two and a half millions. Chicago, now a city 
of more than a million, was then a mere village in the 
wilderness, and on the outskirts of civilization. Along 
with other great inventors and inventions, it is especially 
to George Stephenson and the railroad that Chicago 
owes her wonderful growth. 

Side by side with this colossal invention, we may 
name a little one. Many persons are still living who 
Friction Can remember when it was sometimes neces- 
matches. ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ one's neighbors to borrow the 
means of lighting the kitchen fire. Friction matches 



§§ 123, 124. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



329 




A VIEW OF CHICAGO IN 1832.I 

were unknown till 1829. A few years afterward (1835), 
while the invention was still new, some ill-disposed per- 
sons sought to hinder the business of a meeting of 
Democrats in New York by suddenly putting out the 
lights ; but some of the company present had " locofoco 
matches " in their pockets, and the lamps were at once 
lighted again ; and such an impression did this little inci- 
dent make on the public mind that for about ten years the 
Democrats were very commonly called " Locofocos." 

124. The Commercial Panic of 1837. The rapid 
development of western lands since 1820 led to a vast 



' ^ This drawing, made by Mr. George Davis, a well-known citizen of 
Chicago, is a faithful landscape of the locality at the junction of the two 
branches of the Chicago River, then called Wolf's Point. 

The building on the left was the Wolf Tavern, where General Scott 
made his headquarters during the Black Hawk War. That on the right 
was the Miller House. They were used, as necessities might require, 
for Sunday services, or as schoolhouses, taverns, or private residences. 
jExcept the fort, they were the most notable buildings of the place. 



330 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



amount of wild speculation, and this was made worse by 
our banking system, which had never been very sound. 
Too much paper money was afloat. After 1830, the 
Wild spec- building of railroads intensified speculation into 
uiation. ^ crazc, and further harm was done, in 1833, by 
Jackson's violent distribution of the public deposits. In 
1837, there came a tremendous commercial crash, the 

worst this country has 
ever known. All over 
the country the banks 
suspended specie pay- 
ments, thousands of fam- 
ilies were ruined, and 
laborers were deprived of 
work. 

People thought that 
government ought to try 
to cure these evils. 
Some clamored for an 
issue of paper money ; 
others wanted to have 
the bank reestablished. 
But President Van Buren believed that government 
should meddle with commercial business as little as pos- 
sible. In financial matters, his ability was very great, 
The di- and the principal achievement of his adminis- 
ban^ka°nd tration was the divorce of bank and state, 
state. gy Y^j^ Buren's " Sub-Treasury System " — 

which, after some vicissitudes, was finally established in 
1846, and is still in force — the public revenues are not 
deposited in any bank, but are paid over on demand to 
the treasury department by the collectors. This sepa- 
ration of the government from banking was an achieve- 
ment of great and permanent value. 

^ After a painting by Holman. 




MARTIN VAN BUREN.^ 



124, i^S- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



331 



The troubles of 1837 had not passed out of men's 
minds in 1840, and undoubtedly had much to 

. 1 he elec- 

do with the result of the election. Northern tion of 
and southern Whigs were now combined, and 
nominated as their candidates Harrison and Tyler. As 
Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, had lived in a log 
cabin and had hard cider on his table, much was made 
of these circumstances in the campaign, and Van Buren 
was reviled as a heartless aristocrat with a silver tea 
service. In the election, " Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 
as they were called in one of the campaign songs, had 
234 votes to Van Buren's 60, and were elected. There 
was a third candidate, James Birney, representing oppo- 
sition to negro slavery, but he got no electoral votes. 



2Df)e J^arrisfon^^D^ler 0Dmint0tration, 

W/it£-: 18^1-184$. 

125. Leading Events in Tyler's Administration. 

In a month after the 
inauguration. President 
Harrison died, ^^^^^^^^ 
and Tyler be- of Harri- 
came president. 
This unexpected event 
led to a quarj^el which 
partially broke up the 
Whig party. President 
Tyler was as much op- 
posed to high tariffs, in- 
ternal improvements, 
and a national bank as 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON.! JacRsou himseli. xiG 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. iu. 




332 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



differed from the Democrats only in not being willing to 
use military force to put down nullification, and in dis- 
approving of some of Jackson's theories. On the other 
hand, Clay, the leader of the northern Whigs, wished to 
restore the bank and high tariffs. The result was a 
great struggle between Clay and Tyler, which drove the 
The breach latter away from the Whigs and over toward 
ch^^and ^^^ Dcmocrats. Tyler was victorious on the 
Tyler. questions at issue, and the attempts to re- 

store the bank and high tariffs were decisively defeated. 
Three matters not connected with the national politics 

here deserve mention. . 
In Rhode Island, the old ! 
charter of 1662 (§ 53) i 
was still in force. Its : 
grant of suffrage was I 
felt to be too limited, 
and its distribution of ! 
representatives in the 
legislature had come to 
be unfair. In 1841, a 
new constitution was 
adopted, but by mass 
conventions, ' not by 
those who were entitled 
to vote under the ancient charter. Accordingly, when ■ 
a new governor. Dorr, was elected under the new con- '■ 
Dorr's Re- stitutiou, the old government refused to ac- 
beihon. knowledge him. Another new constitution, 
adopted with more regard to law, was set to work in 
1843. Meanwhile, Dorr, who had tried to seize the 
state arsenal, was convicted of treason, but pardoned. 
This affair was known as Dorr's Rebellion. 

^ From Williams's Presidents of the United States, 




JOHN TYLER.1 



§ 125. WESTWARD EXPANSION, ^^^ 

Troubles in New York grew out of some tenants of 
the old patroon estates (§ 59) refusing to pay their rent, 
which was the veriest trifle in amount, — one The Anti- 
day's work in a year, with three or four fowls ^^"'^■^^• 
and a barrel or so of flour. But it was a queer relic of 
old European feudal customs, and was unpopular. The 
disturbances came to an end in 1846. 

A man named Joseph Smith had shown a book which 
he said had been revealed to him supernaturally. It is 
known as the Book of Mormon, and its style was sug- 
gested by the English version of the Old Tes- The Mor- 
tament. With this document in hand. Smith "^°"^" 
founded a religious sect which, in 1840, made a settle- 
ment at Nauvoo, in Illinois. In 1844, the neighbors 
killed Smith, and by 1846 his followers were driven 
from the state. After some vicissitudes, a company of 
these Mormons, led by Brigham Young, made their soli- 
tary way out to the Salt Lake valley, where, by skillful 
irrigation, they converted a desert spot into a garden. 
There they founded Salt Lake City, and, for a while, 
established polygamy. 

By the treaty of 1783, which ended the Revolutionary 
War, some uncertainty had been left as to the boundary 
between Maine and the adjacent British prov- ^^^ ^^j^_ 
inces. This and sundry other matters of dis- burton 
pute with Great Britain were satisfactorily set- 
tled in a treaty negotiated, in 1 842, by Daniel Webster 
and Lord Ashburton. 

The Oregon question, which the Ashburton treaty did 
.not settle, gives us a vivid idea of the wonderful ^^^ ^^^ 
westward expansion of the United States since gonques- 
the end of the last war with England, in 181 5. 
Both Great Britain and the United States laid claim to 
the portion of the Pacific coast between California, which 



334 THE FEDERAL UNION, Ch. XIV. 

belonged to Mexico, and Alaska, which belonged to Rus- 
sia. Since 1818, it had been held as a sort of neutral 
ground, subject to the joint control of Great Britain and 
the United States. But by 1842 the American stream 
of westward migration was just beginning to overflow 
into the beautiful and fertile Oregon country, and so it 
became a serious question to whom that country should 
belong. At first, the Americans claimed the whole, up to 
the parallel of 54° 40', the southern boundary of Alaska. 
For a time the war cry was " Fifty-four forty or fight," 
but at length, in 1846, it was agreed to divide the terri- 
tory at the forty-ninth parallel. The northern portion 
became British Columbia ; the southern portion now 
comprises the three noble states of Oregon, Washing- 
ton, and Idaho, with a considerable area in Montana 
and Wyoming. 

126. The Controversy over Slavery Extension. It 
was becoming clear that the North had much more 
room at command for planting new free states than the 
South for planting new slave states. In 1836, Arkansas 
was admitted as a slave state, and, in 1837, Michigan 
was admitted to balance it. Then the South 

Slavery • r i t t 

expansion had no morc room for expansion, tor the Indian 
blocked. Territory 1 blocked up all the space left south 
of the Missouri Compromise line ; whereas, to the north 
of that line there was room enough for a dozen states. 
Manifestly, the North was destined soon to outweigh the 
South in Congress, and the South feared that sooner or 
later the North would attempt to abolish slavery. 

This fear was natural. The spirit of reforming 

1 Into this territory, which was organized in 1834, had been moved vari- 
ous tribes from east of the Mississippi River. Some, such as the Chero- 
kees, were fast becoming civilized. Some troubles had been connected 
with the ousting of Indians from their old lands, as the Black Hawk War 
in the Northwest, in 1832, and the Seminole W^ar in Florida, in 1835. 



§ 126. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



335 



abuses of all sorts was grow- 
ing ; and along with the im- 
provement of prisons and 
asylums and poorhouses, 
along with reform of the 
criminal law and the growth 
of charitable societies, as- 
saults began to be made 
upon negro slavery. The 
little band of abolitionists 
began an agitation which 
they were determined should 

not stop so long xheaboli- 

as slavery endured. Zionists. 
The leader of the abolition- 
ists was a printer and editor, 
William Lloyd Garrison, who 
was ably supported by the 
silver-tongued orator, Wen- 
dell Phillips, and the learned 
and powerful preacher, 
Theodore Parker. At 
Washington, in the House 
of Representatives, the sub- 
ject of slavery was seldom 
allowed to rest in quiet ; for 
Ex-President John Ouincy 
Adams was a member of the 
House from 1831 till his 
death in 1 848, and the more 
the southern members tried 
to stop the discussion of 
slavery the more ruthlessly 
he carried it on. 




WILLIAM LLOYn GARRISON. 




WENDELL I'lULLirS. 




THEODORE iARKEK. 




Holmes. 




EiiKrson. 



-':^ 



lA 




IVhUtier. 



^c^ 




Prescott. 



126. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



337 



Moreover, America was beginning to acquire literary 
iminence. Before 1830, Bryant, Irving, and Eminent 
Zooper had become distinguished, and Poe and ^^'■"®''*- 
Hawthorne had appeared on the scene. Within the next 
lalf dozen years there followed Whittier, Longfellow, 
Holmes, Prescott, and Emerson. Some of these writers 
ittackcd slavery, the feeling of all was hostile to it, and 
;uch an intellectual and moral awakening as they took 
Dart in was sure to become fatal to it. 

The southern people, therefore, in self-defense felt 
driven to acquire more territory. The republic of 
Fexas was close at hand, a fine country as big as the 
A.ustro-Hungarian Empire, with Italy and Switzerland 
:hro\vn in. Texas had once belonged to Mexico, but, in 
1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, „ 

' _ ' _ , Texas. 

bad obtained a grant of land there, and within 

1 few years more than 20,000 people from the United 

States had settled in 

Texas. The government 

jf Mexico was regarded 

IS oppressive, and these 

Fexans declared their 

•.tate independent. In 

:St,6, their commander, 

Samuel Houston, totally 

lefcated the Mexicans 

mder Santa Anna, in 

he battle of San Jacinto, 

.nd the independence of 

Texas was achieved. 
I ^ext year, she asked for admission to the American 

Jnion, but nothing was done about it, and for some 

ears she was known as the " Lone Star State." At 

1 From a print in Alaman's Mcjico, v. 687. 




SANTA ANNA.l 



I 



338 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch, XIV. 




SAMUEL HOUSTON.l 



length, in 1844, the ques- 
tion came up again, and 
with it the slavery ques- 
tion. The South was de- 
termined to annex Texas, 
while northern opponents; 
of slavery were opposed] 
to the annexation. ' 

The little anti-slavery, 
or " Liberty," party nom- 
inated James Birney for 
the presidency, and the 
Whigs nominated Henry 
Clay. The Democrats 
would naturally have 
nominated Van Buren, but many of Tyler's pro-slavery 
Whigs had gone over to the Democratic party, making it 
more pro-slavery than before. Van Buren was: 
opposed to the extension of slavery, so the 
southern delegates succeeded in defeating his 
nomination and putting James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, 
in his place. Among American presidents, Polk was the 
earliest instance of what politicians call a " dark horse," 
a candidate not widely known to the public, and kept 
concealed until the last moment. Birney got no eleo 
toral votes. Clay got 105, Polk got 170, and was elected, 
The news of Polk's nomination, sent from Baltimore 
The tele- to Washington, was the first message sent ir 
graph. j.|^jg country by the electro-magnetic telegraph 
which, after some years of partial success in German) 
and England, was at length perfected in America, ir 
1844, by Joseph Henry and Samuel Morse. 

1 From a picture in Niles's South America and Mexico, HartfordJ 
1837. 



The elec- 
tion of 
1844. 



\ 127. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



339 



IDolfe's; ^Dminisftration, 

Democratic: 1 84.^-1 S^g. 

127. The "War with Mexico. Texas and Florida 
were admitted to the Union in 1845, but they were 
soon balanced by two free states, Iowa, in 1846, and 
Wisconsin, in 1848. It was 
provided that, at any future 
time, with the consent of its 
own people, Texas might 
be divided into four states. 
But more southern territory 
was needed, and an occa- 
sion for winning it was 
already offered. The people 
of Texas held that their 
state extended southwest- 
ward as far as the Rio 
Grande, but the Mexican 
i^overnment refused to admit that it extended furthei 
;han the Nueces River. By President Polk's order, 
jeneral Zachary Taylor, with 4,000 men, marched in 
Ind took possession of the disputed strip of land be- 
iween the two rivers. A Mexican army attacked him 
:here, early in 1846, and was routed in two battles at 
r'alo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. This was the be. 
[inning of a war which lasted a year and a half. Tayloi 
avaded Mexico and held the northern portion of the 
ountry. Kearney took possession of New Mexico, in- 
luding Arizona ; a small force, under Fremont, aided 
y the fleet, occupied California ; and, finally. General 
^cott, landing at Vera Cruz, fought several obstinate 

1 From Jenkins's Life 0/ Jafnes Knox Polk. 




JAMES KNOX POLK.l 



340 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

battles, and ended the struggle by capturing the city 
of Mexico, September 14, 1847. The United States 
soldiers vanquished the Mexicans wherever they found 
them and in whatever numbers. Thus, on one occasion, 
when Taylor had sent reinforcements to Scott, reducing 
his own army to about 5,000 men, Santa Anna suddenly 
attacked him at Buena Vista with 20,000, and was badly 
defeated. It was in Mexico that most of the great 
commanders in our Civil War had their first experience 
in regular military operations. 

128. The New Territory Acquired from Mexico. 
When peace was made with Mexico, in February, 1848, , 
it added to the United States an enormous territory, 
equal in area to Germany, France, and Spain added to- 
gether. . Such a result had been • foreseen, and ever t 
since the war began it had been a question what should 
be done about allowing slavery in states formed out of 
this new territory. In 1846, David Wilmot, a Demo- 
cratic member of Congress from Pennsylvania, proposed ' 

that slavery should be forever prohibited in the . 
mot Pro- whole of the territory that was to be acquired ' 

from Mexico. This was the famous Wilmot 
Proviso, and it marks the turning point in the history 
of slavery ; for, although it failed to pass both houses 
of Congress, it announced a policy that was soon to be. 
victorious. In point of fact, no new slave state was 
ever made after Texas. 

The westward migration of people rushed into Cali- 
fornia much sooner and faster than anybody had ex- 
pected. Early in 1848, a workman, who was digging a 
mill race in the Sacramento valley, observed that the 

soil contained bright particles of gold. It was 

not long before it was found that gold abounded 
in that gravelly soil. People began to rush to Call- 



128. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



341 



"ornia from all parts of the world, in the hope of sudden 
/wealth. There were many ruffians among them, but 
:ew or no negroes. In a year's time the population of 
[California was large enough for a state, and a strong 
ocal government was needed to suppress the thieves 
md blackguards. For want of such a govern- . , 

. . .. Vigilance 

nent, honest citizens were obliged to organ- commit- 
ze vigilance committees to deal quickly and 
sharply with criminals. In 1849, the people of Cali- 
"ornia applied to Congress for admission to the Union, 
ivith a constitution forbidding slavery. 




-^ li.' 








1 SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849, FROM THE HEAD OF CLAY STREET.l 

i' Meanwhile came the election of a new president, 
^he Democrats nominated Lewis Cass, of Michigan, 
nd the Whigs nominated Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, 
ji? hero of Buena Vista. A third party, made up of 

1 From TAe Annals of San Francisco- 



342 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIVJ 

anti-slavery Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and aboli-j 
Election of tionists, was known as the Free-Soil party. It 
^®*^' nominated Martin Van Buren for president 
and Charles Francis Adams (son of John Quincyi 
Adams) for vice-president. Cass received 127 electoral 
votes, Taylor received 163, and was elected. 



topics and questions. 

115. The Close of a Warlike Period. 

1. What fighting came to an end in 181 5 ? 

2. Show how the world has been more peaceful since. 

3. What new interests came in with the peace of 1815 ? 
1x6. The Era of Good Feeling. 

1. The national party now in power. 

2. The death of the Federalist party. 

3. The good feeling during Monroe's presidency. 

4. Monroe as a man. 
117. Monroe's Foreign Policy. 

1. The purchase of Florida. 

2. The object of the Holy Alliance. 

3. Why the United States feared it. 

4. The doctrine of Monroe. 

5. The effect of its declaration. 
ri8. The Unexpected Growth of Negro Slavery. 

1. Thirty years of progress. 

2. The westward movement. 

3. The multiplication of steamboats. 

4. New states in consequence. 

5. The balance of slave states and free. 

6. American slavery before the Revolution. 

7. Slavery in the Constitution. 

8. Events that gave new life to slavery. 

9. How it was to be defended against possible attacks. 

10. The northwest territory. 

11. The Ordinance of 1787. 

12. The line between freedom and slavery. 

13. The Missouri Compromise. 

14. The election of 1824. 



Ch. XIV. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 343 

119. New Issues and a New Division of Parties. 

1. The Erie Canal and its fruits. 

2. Opposing views about internal improvements. 

3. A protective tariff. 

4. A tariff for revenue. 

5. A tariff for revenue with incidental protection. 

6. Opposing views about the tariff. 

7. Opposing views about the United States Bank. 

8. The views of the National Republicans. 

9. The views of the Democrats. 

10. High tariff victories, and their effect on the South. 

11. The election of 1828. 
(20. The Spoils System. 

, The growing view about rotation in office. 

2. The first application of this principle. 

3. Removals from office before 1829 and after. 

4. The bad results of the system. 

5. The origin of the name of the system. 
21. Nullification. 

1. What state right did Calhoun now claim? 

2. What consequence of this doctrine was feared ? 

3. Tell about Webster's reply to Hayne. 

4. How did Jackson disappoint the nullifiers ? 

5. How did Jackson reveal to them his attitude ? 

6. Give an account of the election of 1832. 

7. What did South Carolina do about the tariff of 1832? 

8. In what way was the crisis met ? 

9. How was the danger averted ? 
. Overthrow of the United States Bank. 

1. Jackson's treatment of the bank. 

2. A quarrel that sprang from this treatment. 

3. The resolution of censure. 

4. The attitude of the National Republicans toward Jackson 

5. The attitude of the States Rights men toward Jackson. 

6. A new name for these two groups. 

7. The election of 1836. 
. A New Era of Progress. 

1. George Stephenson. 

2. His locomotive. 

3. The blessings of railroads. 

4. Railroad building from 1830 to i860. 



344 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV, 

5. Ocean traffic. 

6. Labor-saving machinery. 

7. New York and Chicago. 

8. Friction matches. 

9. How these matches gave a name to a great party. 

124. The Commercial Panic of 1837. 

1. What four causes led up to this panic? 

2. Describe the crash. 

3. What cure of these evils did some clamor for ? 

4. What was Van Buren's attitude toward the matter? 

5. What was the principal achievement of his administration? 

6. Give an account of the election of 1840. 

125. Leading Events in Tyler's Administration. 

1. The accession of Tyler to the presidency. 

2. The cause of the struggle between Clay and Tyler. 

3. The issue of the controversy. 

4. Dorr's RebeUion. 

5. The Anti-Renters. 

6. Joseph Smith and the Mormons. 

7. The Ashburton treaty. 

8. Oregon down to 1842. 

9. The Oregon agreement of 1846. 

126. The Controversy over Slavery Extension. 

1. Arkansas and Michigan. 

2. The prospects for new free states and new slave. 

3. What the South feared, and why. 

4. The band of abolitionists. 

5. Eminent writers, and what they thought of slavery. 

6. United States settlers in Texas. 

7. The winning of Texan independence. 

8. How Texas came into United States politics. 

9. Candidates and party views in the election of 1844. 
ro. The first message by telegraph. 

127. The War with Mexico. 

1. Two slave states admitted and two free. 

2. The dispute over the Texas boundary. 

3. The acts that began the war. 

4. The campaigns of Taylor, Kearney, and Fremont. 

5. The city of Mexico captured. 

6. The battle of Buena Vista. 



:h. XIV. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 345 

28. The New Territory Acquired from Mexico. 

1. The magnitude of this addition. 

2. The great question about it. 

3. Wilmot's proposition. 

4. The discovery of gold. 

5. The effect of this discovery upon California. 

6. Vigilance committees. 

7. The election of 1848. 

suggestive questions and directions. 

/. What are some of the evils of war ? Is there any good to off- 
set these evils? If so, what is it? Are nations that desire 
peace ever forced into war? If two men have a difficulty 
with each other, what are feasible ways of settling it without 
resorting to violence ? Are any of these ways applicable to 
nations that do not agree ? Why is it more difficult for na- 
tions than for individuals to arrive at peaceable settlements ? 
Mention some difficulties of an international sort that have 
been peaceably disposed of. 

s. As civilization advances, will there be a growing or a diminish- 
ing tendency to engage in war, to expend money for it, to 
magnify its fighters, and to glory in its victories ? What is 
civilization ? Mention some country whose civilization is of 
a low grade, and tell why it is low. What are the signs of 
advancing civiHzation ? Does an increasing earnestness for 
peace carry with it necessarily the reduction of armies and 

I of wars ? Why are the nations of Europe so heavily armed ? 

May not armies and navies increase the likelihood of peace? 

3. What kind of aggression has been at the bottom of most In- 
dian wars? What is it to own land in severalty? What 

, is it to own land in common ? How did the Indians hold 

it ? How do white people hold it ? Does the fact that white 
people make better use of the land than the Indians, millions 
occupying it where the Indians numbered only thousands, 
justify them in dispossessing the Indians? Read Black 
Hawk's own account of how the Black Hawk War, in 1832, 
was caused ; also his speech at his surrender {Old South 
Leaflets, eighth series, 1890, No. 6). Cite instances in which 
white people have tried to be just to Indians whose lands 
they have taken. 
Read Longfellow's The Arsenal at Springfield. What are the 



346 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

peace sentiments expressed there? Do you like them? 
Read Whittier's The Angels of Btiena Vista. Quote senti- 
ments of peace from other poets. What gives to war its 
glamour ? What is calculated to dispel this glamour ? 

5. What great advantage in war and navy expenses has the United 

States over the nations of Europe ? 

6. Show how it was more difficult for southerners to oppose slav- 

ery than northerners. Show how self-interest had much 
to do with making the northern states free and the south- 
ern slave. 

7. Give the principal facts about the ownership of Florida from 

its first settlement. 

8. In what political parties has a nullifying, or seceding, spirit at 

different times been shown ? In each case what has been 
the cause ? 

9. Why did the South desire a kind of balance in admitting slave 

states and free ? 

10. What was the pro-slavery objection to the Missouri Compro-; 

mise ? What was the anti-slavery objection ? 

11. For what internal or national improvements does the United 

States government provide to-day? To what internal im- 
provements once advocated does it give no attention to-day? 

12. What enterprises or kinds of business is it proper for the United 

States government to carry on ? What is it manifestly un- 
wise for it to undertake? What private enterprises are 
thought by some people to be fair subjects for government 
control ? Give some reasons for each answer. 

13. Mention some objections to the Spoils System. What sort oi 

offices should be held during competency and good behavior; 
Why? Should they be distributed as political rewards: 
Should they be filled impartially on some basis of merit] 
What officials may properly be changed as administration: 
change, and why ? 

14. Assign striking passages from Webster's reply to Hayne to b 

recited or read. What use is there in declaiming such pas 
sages ? 

15. What is a veto ? Does it necessarily defeat a measure ? Wh; 

should the president be given such power ? Who gave it ti 
him ? The authority for your answer ? 

16. What is anthracite coal ? What other kinds are there ? Wha 

has coal to do with United States history? 



H. XIV. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION, 



347 



Suppose a business man makes larger promises to pay money 
than he can meet, what is the effect upon the value of his 
promises ? Substitute a corporation, a city, a state, the 
United States, for the business man, and then answer the 
question. 

What kind of business may a bank do {a) with loans, {b) with 
deposits, and {c) with paper money? What sort of care 
ought it to exercise about loaning its funds? What duty 
does it owe to its depositors ? Read a modern bank note, 
and observe what it really is. May such notes be issued 
without limit? What have bank questions had to do with 
our history ? 

What was the leading feature of the old European feudal sys- 
tem? Under this system was the land discovered in Amer- 
ica by Englishmen regarded as belonging to the discoverers 
themselves, to the English nation, or to the English sover- 
eign? Explain and illustrate. 

Find anti-slavery poems in the writings of Longfellow, Lowell, 
Holmes, and others. 

When are compromises desirable ? Is it possible to organize 
the government of a great people without them ? 

In accordance with the following plan, make out a table of suc- 
cessful and unsuccessful political parties for the eleven presi- 
dential terms from Washington to Polk, inclusive : 



PRESIDENTS. 



ELECTED BV WHOM. 



OPPOSED BY WHOM. 



What were the leading views of the successful parties men- 
tioned above? Of the unsuccessful parties? Mention 
one or more of these old views, or policies, that are still sub- 
jects of political discussion ? What ones have become estab- 
lished as undisputed parts of the administration of national 
affairs? What ones have failed to receive national sanc- 
tion? 
Numerous interesting topics are either lightly touched in the 
text or omitted altogether, such, for example, as the follow- 
ing: 



348 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV 

a. The Seminole War. 

b. Cotton and the cotton gin. 

c. The life of Henry Clay. 

d. The life of John C. Calhoun. 

e. The life of Andrew Jackson. 
/ The life of Daniel Webster. 
g. The Erie Canal. 

h. Labor-saving machines. 

i. The removal of the Cherokees, ' 

j. The life of any of the writers mentioned in § 126. 

k. Events in the war for Texan independence. 

/. The vigilance committees of California. 
The teacher may add freely to the list. Let the pupil take one of 
these topics for study, find out for himself sources of information, 
and make an oral or written report upon it. However full the read- 
ing may be, the report should be brief and simple. Indeed, the 
exigencies of the class room may make it desirable for the teacher 
to devise some simple form of certificate for the pupil to fill out, in 
which it is enough for him to tell what subject he has been looking 
up, what book and writer he has consulted, and what matter, by 
pages, chapters, or otherwise, he has read. 



CHAPTER XV 

SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 1850-1865. 

Ctje 2Dai?loj:^i?tllmore ;atimint0tratton, 

W/ii^: 184^-1853- 

129. Review of the Situation as to Slavery. The 
story of the disputes over slavery, which led to the Civil 
War, is inseparably connected with the story of the 
westward expansion of the United States. At the point 
it which we have now arrived, it is desirable to pause 
for a moment and take a brief review of the situation, 
in order that we may see clearly how one event led to 
mother. 

It will be remembered that in 1787, when our Federal 
Constitution was framed, the territorial domain of the 
United States was bounded on the west by the Missis- 
sippi Riv^er. In the region north of the Ohio River, 
legro slavery was prohibited by the Ordinance Areas of 
)f 1787. The territory lying south of the Ohio IndSery 
R-iver and west of the original states of Vir- '" ^^^^' 
pnia, the two Carolinas, and Georgia, at first belonged 
o those states, or was claimed by them ; and when 
hose states ceded their claims to the United States, it 
vas with the understanding that the United States 
ihould not interfere with the existing custom of slavery 
n that region. The Ohio River was thus the dividing 
ine, north of which slavery was prohibited and south 
)f which it was allowed. 



350 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

Our Federal Constitution nowhere uses the word 
•' slave," but in the three places where it refers to slavery 
Conees- it uses some other expression.^ Three conces^ 
siavery°in sions Were made to the slaveholders, which it 
Con^tlm-^' was believed would prevent any occasion for 
^on- disputes. First, in apportioning representation 

in Congress, the slave states were allowed to count 
three fifths of their slaves as population. This arrange* 
ment increased the weight of the southern states in the 
national house of representatives. For example, if a 
southern state had half as many blacks as whites in its 
population, then every io,cxx) whites in that state would 
count as 10,000 plus three fifths of the 5,000 blacks ; in 
other words, 10,000 whites in that state would balance 
13,000 whites in a non-slaveholding state. In South 
Carolina there were at least as many blacks as whites 
therefore in South Carolina every 10,000 whites countec 
for as much as 10,000 plus three fifths of 10,000, thai 
is to say, as much as 16,000 whites in Massachusetts 
Secondly, the national government was not to be allowec 
to prohibit the importation of slaves from Africa befon 
the year 1808. Thirdly, it was stipulated that any fugi 
tive slave, escaping into a free state, should not thereby 
acquire freedom, but should be delivered up to his mas 
ter on demand. 

These concessions to slaveholders made the Feder 
alist party for some time strong in South Carolina 
They were quite generally supposed to have settled th( 
slavery question once for all. But the purchase of th 

^ Thus in article I., section ii., clause 3, after speaking of " free pei 
sons," it goes on to mention " other persons." In article I., section ix 
clause I, we read of "such persons as any of the states . . . shall thin 
proper to admit." In article IV., section ii., clause 3, occurs the phras 
" person held to service or labor." But in the thirteenth amendmen 
added in 1861;, abolishing sUverv. the word "slaverv" is user. 



5 189- SLAVERY AND SECESSION, 35 I 

Louisiana territory in 1803 (§ no) prepared the way 
for disputes, and the first dispute came, as Effect of 
we have seen, when the state of Missouri was *^!^°"'^'' 
about to come into the Union. It was settled ^^'^^^e. 
in 1820 by the Missouri Compromise (§ 118), which pro- 
vided that thenceforth, westward to the Rocky Moun- 
tain boundary, slave states might be formed from United 
States territory south of the parallel of 36° 30' (the 
southern boundary of Missouri), but that none but free 
states could be formed north of that line. 

By this compromise the South gained the point im- 
mediately in dispute, the admission of Missouri as a 
slave state; but it left the advantage in the why the 
;long run greatly in favor of the North. Below comjro" 
the compromise line there was room only for l^"'^^ ^^''^'^ 

■■• -'to satisfy 

Arkansas and one good-sized state to the west the South. 
of it,i and in 1834 this latter space was appropriated as 
Indian Territory; whereas the JMissouri Territory, above 
;the compromise line, was so vast that nine large states 
i(with parts of others) have since been carved from it. 
Therefore in order to maintain the balance between 
North and South, as the westward expansion went on, 
the slaveholders felt it necessary to acquire more ter- 
ritory. This need was partly met by the annexation of 
Texas, and there followed the war with Mexico and the 
conquest of the vast country between Texas and Oregon 
from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. At 
I the same time the settlement of the Oregon question 
t§ 125) added greatly to the area available for the North. 
This new expansion to the westward at once re-opened 
he whole slavery question, and the resulting disputes 
vent on without ceasing until the defeat of the South 
-jti the great Civil War put an end to slavery forever 
j\ * See the colored map opposite page 315. 



352 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV 



The question was at first made a pressing one by the 
discovery of gold in California. The sudder 
rapid peopling of that country made ii 



Effect of 

the Mexi- and 

necessary without delay to consider its petitior; 
to be admitted to the Union. Resort was had to com- 
promise, as before, but the situation was fast becoming 
such as to make a satisfactory compromise impossible, t 
130. The Compromises of 1850. At first some peo- 
ple had thought that the slavery question could be finall) 
dmi settled by prolonging the Missouri Compromise 
sionofCai- line to the Pacific coast, and allowing slaver) 
to the south of it. Any such scheme was 
shown to be impossible when California applied foii 

admission as a free state. 
A considerable part ol 
California lies south of the 
parallel of 36° 30'. If it 
were to be admitted as a 
free state, the South de- 
manded some kind of equi- 
valent. After long and 
heated debate, the ques- 
tion was settled by the 
adoption of a group oi 
compromises proposed by 
the venerable Henry Clay, 
whose Missouri Compro- 
mise had for thirty years done so much to preserve the 
union in peace. 

The most essential points in the compromises were 
thus balanced against each other: (i) California was 
admitted as a free state, and, in return, two new ter- 
ritories — Utah (including Nevada) and New Mexicc 

^ From Howard's Genera/ Taylor, 




ZACHARY TAYLOR.l 



i 



1 



'§ 13° 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 




353 

(including Arizona) — were organized without the Wil- 
mot Proviso ; (2) The slave trade was abolished in the 
iDistrict of Columbia, and, 
in return, a stringent law 
was passed for the arrest 
pf fugitive slaves in the 
northern states. Many 
people believed that these 
compromises would set 
the slavery question at 
fest. 

j In July, 1850, President 
Jaylor died, a'nd Vice- 
President Millard Fill- 
imore took his place. 
iPhere was nothing more 
pf moment in the course of this administration, except 
|;hat a party of filibusters invaded Cuba, in ^[^^^ 
1851, in the hope of annexing it to the United FiUmore. 
States. They were defeated, and their leader, Lopez, 
vas executed at Havana. 

In 1852, the Whigs nominated Winfield Scott, the 
pther hero of the Mexican War, and the Democrats 
iiominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, a second 
, nstance of a "dark horse." The Free -Soil „, , 

■ The elec- 

oarty nominated another New Hampshire man, tion of 
fohn Parker Hale, who obtained no electoral 
'otes. There was to be a wonderful change in the next 
wo years, as we shall see. Scott obtained 42 electoral 
rotes, Pierce obtained 254, and was elected. This was 
he last appearance of the Whig party under that name 
n a presidential election. 



MILL.^RD FILLMORE.l 



^ From Thomas & Lathrop's Biography of Millard Fillmore. 



354 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




pierces; 0Dmini0tration» 

Democratic : 1853-18^7. 

131. The Slavery Question Uppermost. The Mis- 
souri Compromise had brought a long rest to the coun- 
try, but the compromises 
of 1850 stirred up strife 
more bitter than had been 
known before. The elec- 
tion of Pierce to the 
presidency came at the 
opening of a new era 
in the slavery question. 
Webster and Clay had 
just died, and in their 
place were to be seen, 
among the foremost fig- 
ures at the North, Seward 
of New York, Chase of 
Ohio, and Sumner of Massachusetts, men prepared to 
take a bolder stand against slavery. Calhoun had also 
been removed by death, and among the southern leaders, 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was coming to the front. 
The first source^ of irritation in the new compromises 
was the Fugitive Slave Law. It is true that the pur- 
pose of this measure was simply to enforce a provision 
which had always formed a part of the Federal Consti- 
tution. It was distinctly provided in the Constitution 
that a runaway slave, escaping to a free state, must be 
surrendered to his lawful master on demand ; but legis- 
lation was needed to determine the manner in which 
this provision should be enforced. In 1793, it was en- 

1 From Hawthorne's Life of Franklin Pierce. 



FRANKLIN PIERCE.l 



5 131. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 355 

acted by Congress that a man claiming a fugitive slave 
might prove his ownership by making affidavit before 
either a United States court or a magistrate „ , 

*=> Personal 

of the city or town where the arrest was made, Liberty 
and local officers, such as sheriffs or consta- 
bles, might have custody of the prisoner. But with the 
growth of anti-slavery sentiment at the North, as slave- 
catching grew more and more unpopular, several north- 
ern states passed "personal liberty" laws for the pro- 
tection of negroes from persons claiming them as siaves. 
New York, in 1840, passed an act securing jury trial to 
such negroes. Massachusetts and Vermont, in 1843, 
passed laws prohibiting state officers from taking part 
in the surrender of fugitives, and forbidding the use of 
their jails for the detention of such persons. Similar 
laws were passed in 1847, by Pennsylvania, and in 1848, 
by Rhode Island. 

These " personal liberty " laws annoyed the slave- 
holders, and the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was devised 
in such manner as to counteract them. By this law 
United States commissioners were appointed, with full 
powers of judges, for hearing claims to fugitive ._ 

slaves, and the custody and surrender of such tive Slave 
fugitives were entrusted, not to state officers, 
but to United States marshals. Thus the United States 
government no longer called upon some single State 
to surrender an alleged fugitive within its limits, but it 
undertook to send its own officers into any State to 
seize upon any colored person against whom a claim 
night be made and to send him away into slavery. For 
:he alleged fugitive was not allowed a jury trial ; the 
daimant was not bound to prove that he was a run- 
iway ; a simple affidavit was enough. 

It has been argued that this refusal of a trial by jury 



356 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

made the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional. For 
the alleged runaway must be either a slave or a free 
man. If a slave, he was property worth more than 
twenty dollars, and in all claims to property exceeding 
that amount the Constitution (amendment VII.) guar- 
antees the right of trial by jury. If he was a free man, 
his right to be tried by jury in a case affecting his life 
or liberty was one of those common law rights reserved 
by the Constitution (amendment X.) to the people. 

In response to the Fugitive Slave Law, several north- 
ern states passed new and stronger " personal liberty " 
laws, some of which went to the very verge of nullifying 
an act of Congress. The first attempts at arresting 
runaway slaves under this act excited great and growing 
v^rrath at the North, and on many occasions there were 
riots and rescues. Two of the most notable cases were 
in Boston. In 1851, a negro named Shadrach was taken 
from the marshal's custody by a mob consisting largely 
of negroes, and he succeeded in escaping to Canada. 
In 1854, Anthony Burns, a fugitive from Virginia, was 

arrested in Boston, and confined in the court- 
Case of 

Anthony housc Under a strong guard. A meetmg was 
held at Faneuil Hall to consider whether the 
surrender of Burns should be permitted, and meanwhile 
a party of citizens, led by a clergyman, Thomas Went- 
worth Higginson,^ made an attempt to rescue the pris- 
oner. A door of the court-house was battered in, and 
one of the deputy-marshals was killed, but the assault 
was unsuccessful. The United States commissioner 
ordered that Burns should be surrendered, and he was 

1 Col. Higginson, who afterward in the Civil War commanded the 
first regiment of negro freedmen mustered into the national service, and 
has long been eminent as a man of letters, was in 1854 pastor of a church 
ua Worcester, Mass. 



5i3i- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



ZS7 



sent on board a United States revenue cutter. He was 
escorted by a strong military guard through streets 
filled with an angry crowd, and on the wharf a fight 
seemed about beginning, when the Rev. Daniel Foster 
exclaimed, " Let us pray ! " Instantly the vast multi- 
tude uncovered their heads and listened in devout si- 
lence while Burns was hurried on board ship. 

Probably the most effective response to the Fugitive 
Slave Law was the publication, in 1852, of Uncle Tom's 
Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. Of this novel 
more than half a million 
copies were sold within 
the next five years in the 
United States alone, and 
it was translated into more 
than twenty European and 
several Asiatic languages. 
Read everywhere by old 
and young, it doubtless did 
more than anything else 
ever printed to strengthen 
and spread the feeling of 
hostility to slavery. Prob- 
ably more slaves escaped 
and fewer were returned to their masters than before 
:he passage of the law of 1850. 

Secret understandings were kept up between anti- 
slavery men from town to town, so that a fugitive slave, 
kvho had once got across the Ohio River, or Mason and 
Dixon's line, would be stealthily passed along from one 
protector to another as far as Canada, where no slave 
iiunter could reach him. This sort of arrangement used 
|:o be called the "underground railroad." 

f 1 After an engraving by R. Young, from an original portrait taken 
ibout the time when Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. 




HARRIET BEECHEK STOWE.l 



358 THE FEDERAL UNION, Ch. XV 

The desire for more slave territory was shown in fili- 
bustering expeditions in the Gulf of Mexico. The at- 
tempt of Lopez upon Cuba has been already mentioned. 
From 1855 to i860, William Walker, an adventurer from 
Tennessee, made expeditions against Nicaragua 
tend Mani- and Houduras, but was finally captured and 
shot. But what was most remarkable was the 
Ostend Manifesto. In 1854, the United States minis- 
ters to Great Britain, France, and Spain met together 
at Ostend, in Belgium, and agreed in substance to report 
to President Pierce that, in their opinion, the United 
States ought to have Cuba, even if it should be neces- 
sary to seize it by force in case of Spain's unwillingness 
to sell it. 

132. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. If Cuba had been 
added to the Union as a slave state, it might have served 
as a counterweight to California. But the slaveholders 
had more to hope from a repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise, which would open up all the territories to the 
spread of slavery. Some southern statesmen had always 
held the Missouri Compromise to be unconstitutional, 
and believed that Congress had no right to meddle with 
the question of slavery in the territories, any more than 
in the states. 

But the fatal attack upon the Missouri Compromise 
came not from the South, but from a northern Demo- 
Senator cratic leader. Stephen Arnold Douglas was 
Douglas. Qi^g q£ ii^Q senators from Illinois, For some 
years he had felt an interest in the wild region west of 
Iowa, then called the Platte country, from its principal 
river. California was growing rapidly, and the easiest 
route for people migrating thither lay through this 
country, being the route since followed by the Union 
Pacific railroad Douglas wished to have a territorial 



Ji32 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



359 




government set up for the Platte country, and on this 
occasion he thought he saw a chance for allaying the 
excitement about slavery. 
Why this perpetual fuss 
about letting slavery into 
the territories or keeping 
it out ? Why not let the 
settlers in the territories 
decide such matters for 
themselves ? When peo- 
ple enough have settled 
in a territory to apply for 
admission to the Union, 
let them decide for them- 
selves whether they will 
come in as a slave state 
Dr as a free state. This theory of Douglas ^ was called 
;he doctrine of " squatter sovereignty ; " not 
Congress, but the " squatters " were to be the sover- 
mpreme authority on the great question. It ^'^" ^' 
vas the principle of "local option" applied to slavery. 

In 1854, Douglas brought in a bill for organizing two 
erritorial governments as the territories of Kansas and 
■Nebraska, on the principle of squatter sovereignty, 
ioth territories lay north of 36° 30', and, therefore, the 
,/Iissouri Compromise had forever prohibited slavery in 
ihem. In spite of this prohibition, the Kansas-Nebraska 
fill was passed, thus repealing the Missouri Compromise, 
nd establishing squatter sovereignty in its place. 
! Many of those who voted for the Kansas-Nebraska 

ill believed that this great concession to the slavehold- 

* From Woodward's History of the United States. 

^ Douglas did not invent the doctrine of squatter sovereignty, but was 

'St to adopt and apply it on a great scale. 



STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.l 



360 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

ers would at last put a stop to the agitation. Nothing 
could have been more short-sighted. In point of fact, 
^^ ^ it immediately solidified North and South 
publican against each other, and led speedily to the great 
^^'^^' Civil War. In the course of 1854 and 1855, 

all northern men of whatever party, who were resolved 
that slavery should extend no further, drew together 
under the name of "Anti-Nebraska men." They soon 
became organized into a party with the name "Re- 
publican." The party was made up of anti- slavery 
Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and Free-Soilers, and 
the principle upon which it was based was that of the 
Wilmot Proviso, the absolute prohibition of slavery ini 
the territories. It did not propose to attack slavery 
in the slave states, and for this reason the abolitionists 
generally remained aloof from it. When the anti-slavery 
elements were taken out of the Democratic party, it 
became more and more subservient to southern policy, 
and gradually added to its ranks the pro-slavery Whigs. 
In those days, the Republicans were always called by 
their opponents "Black Republicans," as having an 
affinity for men with black skins. 

Heretofore, settlers had moved out to the western 
frontier for their own private reasons. Now it had 
become an object with politicians to hurry settlers for- 
ward, and the competition between North and South 
soon led to blows. The struggle took place 
for Kan- in Kansas because that territory was the near- 
^' est to the slave states. From Missouri and 

Arkansas squatters went in, while, on the other hand, 
anti-slavery societies m the North subscribed money to 
fit out parties of emigrants. The first trial of squatter 
sovereignty began in bloody fights between pro-slavery 
and anti-slavery squatters, each trying to keep the other 



5§ »32. '33- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



361 




out. The irregular fighting went on for three years, 
from 1855 to 1858; by that time, the northern settlers 
in Kansas were in such 
an overwhelming ma- 
jority that all hope of 
making a slave state 
of it was abandoned. 

The evil passions 
kindled by this strife 
were reflected in Con- 
gress. On May 19 and 
20, 1856, Charles Sum- 
ner, senator from Mas- 
sachusetts, made a 
powerful speech on 
Kansas affairs, contain- 
ing some personal allu- 
sions to Senator But- 
ler, of South Carolina, which were not in good taste. 
Two days afterward, Butler's nephew, Preston Brooks, a 
representative from South Carolina, came up to Sumner 
while he was absorbed in work at his desk in the Senate 
Chamber, and beat him on the head with a cane until 
he had nearly killed him. For three years, while Sum- 
ner was under medical treatment, his chair in the Sen- 
ate remained empty. A motion was made to expel 
Brooks from Congress for this cowardly act, but it failed 
to secure the needful two -thirds vote. On July 14, 
Brooks resigned his seat and went home to South Caro- 
lina, where, after three weeks of enthusiastic welcome 
and congratulation, he was reelected to Congress with 
only six dissenting votes. 

133. The Know-Nothing Party. 
* From a photograph. 



CHARLES SUMNER.l 



During the last 



362 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

four years, a new but short-lived party had sprung up. 
The immigration of foreigners, especially since the 
famine of 1846 in Ireland, had become so great as to 
alarm many people, and a secret society with lodges 
was formed for the purpose of opposing the easy natu- 
ralization of foreigners and their election to political 
offices. Its nominations, made in a secret convention, 
must be voted for by all members of the society under 
penalty of expulsion. Only the members of the higher 
degrees knew the secrets of the organization ; novices 
knew nothing about them. Hence it was called the 
Know-Nothing Society. It developed into, or formed 
the nucleus of, the American party, which was impor- 
tant enough, in 1855, to carry nine state elections. 
Next year, the American party nominated Millard 

Fillmore for the presidency, and rallied to itself 
tionof a small remnant of the Whigs, The Demo- 

crats nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsyl- 
vania, and declared in favor of squatter sovereignty. The 
Republicans stood upon the principle of the Wilmot 
Proviso, and declared that slavery must be prohibited in 
territories ; for their candidate, they took the young 
officer, Fremont, who had aided in conquering Califor- 
nia. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes, Fremont had 
114, Buchanan had 174, and was elected. 



Democratic : l8_^/-l86l. 

134. A Situation Pull of Danger. The election of 
1856 showed that so long as the South was upheld by 
the Democrats at the North, this new Republican party 
would find it hard work to win. But the most notice- 



§ »34 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



363 




JAMES BUCllANAN.l 



able thing was the great strength shown by this party 
scarcely more than two years old. It alarmed the south- 
ern leaders. Many of 
them were already en- 
tertaining thoughts of 
secession in the event 
of the election of a Re- 
publican president. At 
the same time, their pol- 
icy became aggressive to 
the point of recklessness. 
In this they were encour- 
aged by the attitude of 
a large portion of the 
northern people, who, 
until civil war had actu- 
ally broken out, were ready to make extreme concessions 
in order to avoid it. The slaveholders did not 

'1 he policy 

understand this attitude of mind. After it had of conces- 
once become clear, in 1861, that war could not 
be avoided, these friends of concession for the most part 
became stanch defenders of the Union. 

During President Buchanan's administration the at- 
tacks of the abolitionists upon the institution of slavery 
grew fiercer day by day. The all-absorbing question 
was discussed not only in the newspapers and increasing 
magazines, but by lecturers on the platform agitation, 
and preachers in the pulpit. There was a widespread 
feeling of uneasiness, though few people realized how 
speedily war was approaching, and it was generally be- 
lieved that in one way or another so great a calamity 
could be averted. 



^ From Horton's Life of Javies Buchanan. 



364 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV, 

By 1857 the progress of the Kansas experiment had 
begun to show that squatter sovereignty was not helping 
the slaveholders ; in peopling a new territory northern 
resources were too great for them. But the attitude of 
President Pierce encouraged them to demand that the 
Federal government should actively protect slavery in 
all the territories. This was going a long way beyond 
squatter sovereignty. Under President Buchanan they 
kept on with this extreme policy until they alienated the 
great body of northern Democrats, and thus prepared 
the way for Republican victory. 

Dred Scott was the slave of an army surgeon whose 
home was in Missouri. In 1834, his master took him 
to the free state of Illinois, where he lived four years. 
The Dred Thcncc Dred accompanied the surgeon into 
Scott case, ^^g Minnesota territory, where slavery was 
forbidden by the act of Congress called the Missouri 
Compromise. Thence, after a while, they returned to 
Missouri. Some time afterward, Dred was whipped 
and brought suit for damages in an action of assault 
and battery. He claimed to be a free negro ; he could 
not have remained a slave in Illinois and Minnesota, 
and had, therefore, come back to Missouri as a free 
negro. The case was carried before one court after 
another, and one judgment was in Dred's favor. At 
length, the case reached the Supreme Court of the 
United States, which gave its decision in 1857. The 
question before the Supreme Court was a question of 
jurisdiction. Had Dred Scott any right to bring suit 
in the lower courts .-' Was he a citizen within the mean- 
ing of the Federal Constitution ? After deciding this 
question in the negative, the judges went on to give an 
opinion concerning all points connected with the case. 
A majority held that the Missouri Compromise was 



{ 134- SLAVERY AND SECESSION, 365 

unconstitutional, and, therefore, null and void from the 
start ; that Dred Scott was not a citizen of Missouri, 
but a thing ; and that slaveowners could migrate from 
one part of the Union to another, and take their negroes 
with them, just as they could take their horses and dogs, 
or the gold watches and bank notes in their waistcoat 
pockets. 

The practical effect of the Dred Scott decision would 
have been in course of time to make the whole area of 
the United States a slave territory. The recklessness 
of the southern leaders, probably increased by this de- 
cision, was shown in two things : (i) In accord- _. . 
ance with the express understandmg at the trade re- 
time the Constitution was framed, Congress, in 
1808, prohibited the importation of slaves from Africa. 
The slave trade was seriously checked, but not com- 
pletely stopped, by this enactment ; it was continued 
for many years in an underhanded and unacknowledged 
fashion. By 1857 it was becoming apparent that the 
illegal traffic had been resumed on a considerable scale, 
and African slaves were brought into our southern ports 
with scarcely any attempt at concealment. The gov- 
ernment did little to hinder this slave trade, and it went 
on growing in dimensions until it was stopped by the 
Civil War. (2) A small party in Kansas, with the aid 
of the president and a party in Congress, tried to force 
a slave constitution, known as the " Lecompton ^ 

Constitution," upon Kansas, in spite of the constitu- 
determined opposition of the great majority 
of the people of that territory. All these things were 
too much for the northern Democrats, and the Lecomp- 
ton business, in 1858, was the occasion of a break be- 
tween Buchanan and Douglas, which heralded a split iu 
the Democratic party. 



366 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



135. The Debate between Lincoln and Douglas. 

In i8$8, Senator Douglas was a candidate for reelec- 
tion to the Senate, and the Republicans of Illinois put 
forward Abraham Lincoln as rival candidate. Abra- 
ham Lincoln was then forty-nine years old. Descended 
from Virginian ancestors, he was born in Kentucky, 
February 12, 1809. His parents were so poor and 




THE HOME OF LINCOLN AT THE AGE OF TWENTV-TWO.l 



ignorant that they are often spoken of as belonging to 
the "poor white" class. Of schooling Lincoln had 
but little. He served as a flat-boat hand, as a clerk 
and storekeeper in a country village in Illinois, as a 
Abraham postmastcr, and as a surveyor, and, at length, 
Lincoln. having taught himself law, he was admitted to 
the bar, and soon won distinction as a lawyer. He was 

^ Drawn from a photograph by permission of the Abraham Lincoln 
Log Cabin Association. This log cabin was situated on Goose-Nest 
Prairie, near Farmington, 111., and was built by Abraham Lincoln and his 
father, in 1831. 



fi >3S, «36. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 367 

several times elected to the Illinois Legislature, and 
served for a short time in Congress. Long before 1858, 
his local reputation was that of one of the ablest men 
in Illinois, He was extremely clear-headed and saga- 
cious, with wonderful insight into men's characters. As 
an orator, although his tall figure (six feet and four 
inches) was somewhat ungainly, he excelled in com- 
manding dignity and in persuasiveness ; and he was 
a consummate master of pure English speech. As a 
debater he could not be surpassed. He was very kind- 
hearted, unfailing in tact, and abounding in droll humor ; 
and he was also, when occasion required, as masterful 
a man as ever lived. Unselfish, and always to be 
depended upon, he was everywhere known in homely 
parlance as " Honest Abe." For winning people's con- 
fidence and keeping it, he was much like George Wash- 
ington. 

In 1858, Lincoln and Douglas "took the stump to- 
gether " in Illinois, and went about from town to town 
debating questions of national politics. The xhe great 
debate made Lincoln suddenly famous. It did debate. 
not prevent the reelection of Douglas to the Senate, but 
it forced him to such declarations of opinion on the 
Dred Scott case, and other matters, as to make it im- 
possible for the South to accept him as its next candi- 
date for the presidency. Thus, this discussion greatly 
helped to produce the split in the Democratic party, 
which proved fatal to its success in the next election. 

136. Diflferences Past Healing. The next year some- 
thing happened that so enraged people at the South as 
to make them more ready to secede from the Union if 
a Republican president should be elected. John Brown 
was a Connecticut man by birth, and a religious fanatic 
by nature, a curious compound of self-devotion and ruth- 



368 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

lessness. In 1855, he had moved from Ohio to Kansas, 
and in the bloody struggle there had done his full share 
of grim work. In the summer of 1859, he left Kansas 
John and settled in the neighborhood of Harper's 

HTrper's"'^ Ferry, in Virginia. One night in October, with 
Ferry. j^ot morc than twenty followers, he attacked 
the arsenal at that place, in the hope of getting weapons 
and setting up in the wild mountains about there an 
asylum where fugitive and rebellious slaves might con- 
gregate. He was captured of course and hanged. His 
attempt found but little sympathy or approval in the 
North,! where it was generally regarded as an insane 
piece of folly. But to the southern mind it brought up 
all the possible horrors of negro insurrection, and many 
persons may have feared that the election of a Repub- 
lican as president would countenance the repetition of 
such lawless and dangerous proceedings. 

Next year the Republicans nominated Abraham Lin- 
coln for president, and declared that the Federal gov- 
ernment must prohibit slavery in the territories. The 
^, , southern and northern Democrats could not 

The elec- 
tion of agree with each other, and separated. The 

southern Democrats nominated John Breckin- 
ridge, of Kentucky, and declared that the Federal gov- 
ernment must protect slavery in the territories. The 
^, ^ northern Democrats nominated Douglas, and 

The Demo- . . , t> » 

ciatic party were not yet inclined to give up squatter sov- 
ereignty. The meagre remnant of Whigs and 
Know-Nothings, now calling themselves the Constitu- 
tional Union party, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, 

1 After war had broken out, however, John Brown's memory became 
popular with the Union soldiers, and figured in the well-known war- 
song:— 

" John Brown's body lies mouldering in the grave ; 
His soul is marching on." 



§ '36, 137- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



369 



md declared themselves in favor of "the Constitution, 
:he Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

The division of the Democrats made a Republican vic- 
:ory certain. Lincoln had 180 electoral votes, Breckin- 
-idge 72, Bell 39, and Douglas 12. The popular vote for 
Douglas was very large, but in nearly all the northern 
;tates it was merely a large minority, and, therefore, did 
lot show in the electoral vote. 

137. The Secession of Several States. As soon as 





J'EFFERSON DAVIS/ 



ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 



he result of the election was known, the senators and 
''ederal office holders from South Carolina resigned 
heir places. In December, a convention in South Caro- 
>na passed an Ordinance of Secession, dissolv- The Con- 
ig the bonds of union between that state and g^ve^n- 
he others. Before the end of January, 1861, "^^nt. 
[leorgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
"exas had followed South Carolina's lead and withdrawn 
'om the Union. In February, delegates from these 
even seceding states met at Montgomery, in Alabama, 



370 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. i 

and organized a government called the " Confederate ! 
States of America." They adopted a constitution, j 
mostly a copy of the Federal Constitution, and chose \ 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, for president, and Alex- I 
ander Hamilton Stephens, of Georgia, for vice-president. I 
Many United States forts and arsenals were seized, but I 
Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, and a few others ' 
held out. The South Carolinians prepared to capture ! 
Fort Sumter, { 

Meanwhile Congress spent the winter in discussing ' 
schemes of compromise. The scheme which for a short 
time seemed most likely to succeed was one devised by 
John Jordan Crittenden, senator from Kentucky, and l 
known as the Crittenden Compromise. It was proposed 
in the form of an amendment to the Constitution. The 
Missouri Compromise line was to be prolonged to the 
Pacific Ocean, and Congress was to be expressly pro- 
hibited from meddling with slavery south of that line ; 
the Federal government, moreover, was to pay for all 
fugitive slaves rescued from United States officers after 
arrest. This Crittenden Compromise seemed for a time 
very popular at the North, but it failed of adoption. 

In February, 1861, at the request of Virginia, a Peace 
Conference assembled at Washington. The chairman 
was John Tyler, formerly President of the United States, 
and delegates were present from Virginia, North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and 
Delaware, as well as from fourteen free states. After 
much interesting discussion, this Conference recom. 
mended to Congress various concessions to the slave- 
holders. Congress rejected all these recommendations, 
and, instead of them, passed an amendment offered by 
Senator Douglas, guaranteeing that Congress should 
never interfere with slavery in the states- People's 



}§ 137, 138. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 37I 

minds were soon so busy with the Civil War that this 
amendment was forgotten, and it was never adopted by 
the necessary r umber of states. 

About this time, for the sake of conciliation, several 
northern states either repealed or modified their "per- 
sonal liberty " laws. In general, the attitude of the 
North was such that the seceders cherished a strong 
lope of accomplishing their purpose without war. A 
2;reat many people at the North seemed ready to sur- 
•ender almost anything to avoid bloodshed. All sorts 
)f weak suggestions were made by men usually bold 
ind firm, and there is no telling what might have hap- 
)ened but for one man, the gentlest but most unflinch- 
ng of men, who was prudent enough to make the last 
itage of his journey to Washington in secret, because 
:umor had threatened him with assassination on the 
vay. When Abraham Lincoln took his place in the 
Nhite House, it soon appeared that the distressed ship 
)f state had a firm hand at the helm. 

ILmfoln'0 ^Dmmififtration. 

Reptiblican : i86i-t86^. 

I 138. A Survey of the Situation. The year of Lin- 
ioln's election was only seventy years from 1790, the 
ear in which our first census was taken. In that short 
ime there had been great changes. In 1790, the popu- 
ation of Great Britain and Ireland was about 14,000,000, 
nd that of the United States was scarcely 4,000,000. 
:n i860, the population of Great Britain and 

11 1 lift Changes of 

jreland was about 29,000,000, and that of the seventy 
Jnited States was over 31,000,000. So the ^^"^' 
eginning of the Civil War was the moment when the 
aughter country was seen to have grown to be a little 



3/2 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

"taller than its mother," and it was not strange if the 
mother country felt some jealousy. We had, moreover, 
come to be considered a great maritime power ; in mer-: 
chant shipping we were ahead of all other countries oni 
the globe except Great Britain. j 

Another contrast is still more striking. In 1 790, the: 
North and South — that is, the group of free states and 
the group of slave states — were nearly equal in popula- 
tion. In 1 86 1, there were 9,000,000 in the seceding 
states against 22,000,000 in the loyal states ; and of that 
9,000,000, about 3,700,000 were slaves. When it came 
to wealth, the superiority of the North over the Soutt 
was still greater than the superiority in numbers. 

On the other hand, the southerners had one greal 
military advantage. It was not necessary for their armiei 
to overrun the North. If they could defend their owr 
frontier long enough to make the North tired of th( 
war, that would be enough. Thus it became necessar 
for the North to conquer the South, destroy its armies 
and occupy its territory, and that was an immense piec' 
of work. 

In planning secession, the southern leaders general!- 
believed that the North would not fight. They thu 
hoped to attain their ends without a war, but in cas 
war should come after all, they reckoned more or les 
confidently upon three things, in all of which they wer 
disappointed : — 

Three dis- I. They hopcd that all the slave states woul 
me^ts"of unite with them, but this, as we shall present! 
the South, see, was not the case. 

2. They hoped for some valuable assistance froi 
northern Democrats, but got none worth mentioninj 
From the first outbreak of hostilities, the great body (, ' 
northern Democrats loyally supported President Li | 




Copjnght, 1801, by M. P. iUoo 



^yy^u^k^c^r^. 



f From an original, unretouched negative, made in 1S64, at the time the 
■resident commissioned Ulysses Grant Lieutenant-General and Com- 
ander of all the armies of the Republic. It is said that this negative, 
.ith one of General Grant, was made in commemoration of that event. 



374 '^HE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

coin's government. Some of them voted regularly with 
the Republicans ; others, who did not do so, were known 
as "War Democrats." A few, who opposed and some- 
times sought to embarrass-the government, were called 
" Peace Democrats " and reviled as " Copperheads ; " 
6ut there were not enough of them to do much damage. 
3. They hoped for substantial aid from France and 
England, especially the latter. The great English man- 
ufactories depended upon the supply of cotton from the 
South. If war should come, the Federal navy would try 
to blockade the southern coasts ; if it should succeed, it 
would create a dearth of cotton in England ; so it was 
supposed that England would interfere and break the 
blockade in order to get cotton. In this hope the south- 
erners were disappointed. After the war began, the navy 
did blockade the southern coast from Chesapeake Bay tc 
■j-jjg the Rio Grande. Very few ships could get in 

blockade, or out past that great naval wall, and the export 
of cotton was soon stopped. In i860, the amount oJ' 
cotton sent out was valued at $202,741,351 ; in 1861 
only about $42,000,000 worth was exported; in 1862 
only about $4,000,000. This stoppage produced a cot 
ton famine in England ; the cotton machinery stopped 
and thousands of men were thrown out of work. Yet ii 
spite of all the suffering thus caused, the British govern 
ment would not interfere to help the South. Napoleoi 
III., who then ruled France, would have been glad t, 
recognize the independence of the South, but he did no 
like to do it unless England would do so. too, and sh 
would not. This was not because the British goverr 
ment was friendly to the Union, for it was not. Amon 
the people of Great Britain much sympathy was e; 
pressed for the North and for the Union, but in gei 
eral the upper classes of society and the Tory party wei 



M 



I 138, 139. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



375 



(leased at the prospect of a disruption of the United 
)tatcs. Such persons applauded the seceders and pro- 
essed to believe that slavery was not the real cause of 
he war. The attitude of the government,^ without be- 
ng positively hostile, was unsympathetic. Nevertheless 
iingland had for many years been zealously engaged in 
upprcssing the African slave-trade wherever her fleet 
ould reach it ; and she could not be persuaded to go to 
/ar in support of a government whose own vice-presi- 
ent, Alexander Stephens, had publicly declared it to be 
ounded upon slavery as its corner-stone. That would 
lave been too absurd. So the South had to fight through 
he great war alone. 

139. Beginning of the War. All througn tne wm 
er the South Carolinians had defied President Buchanan, 
irho did not seem to know what to do about Fort Sum- 
er. Since the people of South Carolina, and of the 
"onfederacy in general, held that their connection with 
he Union was dissolved, they regarded the United 
states as a foreign power which had no right to keep 
josscssion of Fort Sumter, or any other such place 
/ithin the limits of the Confederacy. On the other 
,and, unless the United States government Theques- 
ps prepared to admit the right of secession, port^lum- 
: was bound to insist upon keeping possession *^''- 
f Fort Sumter and all other such posts. If the Union 
i'as at an end, Fort Sumter belonged to the state of 
outh Carolina, and it was President Buchanan's duty 
j) surrender it without unnecessary delay. Unless the 
/nion was at an end. Fort Sumter belonged to the 
Jnited States, and it was President Buchanan's duty to 



^ Throughout the Civil War, Lord Palmerston was Prime Minister; 
sd Earl Russell, as Foreign Secretary, came most directly into contact 
I ^ American affairs. 



376 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

defend it to the uttermost. The president did not admit 
the right of secession, but he was unwilHng to do any. 
thing toward bringing on an armed conflict. The opin- 
ion was often expressed at that time that while the Con- 
stitution did not authorize any state to secede from the 
Union, neither did it authorize the Federal government 
to employ force in preventing a state from seceding. 
Considerations of this sort hindered Buchanan from mak- 
ing up his mind how to deal with the Fort Sumter ques- 
tion, until presently the 4th of March arrived, and with 
it the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as president. 

Another month elapsed while the new president, beset 
with crowds of applicants for office, was studying the 
details of the situation. On April 8, the governor of 
South Carolina was notified that reinforcements and 
provisions would at once be sent to the Federal garrison 
in Fort Sumter. This information was at once tele- 
graphed to Jefferson Davis, at Montgomery, and he held 
a cabinet meeting to consider it. His secretary ol 
state, Robert Toombs, of Georgia, thought it unwise t( 
attack Fort Sumter. " The firing upon that fort," saici 
Toombs, " will inaugurate a civil war greater than ani: 
the world has yet seen. . . , You will wantonly strikij 
a hornet's nest which extends from mountains to ocean 
and legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us t' 

death. It is unnecessary ; it puts us in th 
of Fort wrong; it is fatal." ^ In spite of this warning 

Davis sent orders to General Beauregard, con 
manding at Charleston, to demand the evacuation ( 
Fort Sumter, and in case of refusal, "to reduce it. 
As the Federal officer in command, Major Robert Ai 
derson, refused to surrender, a bombardment was begu 
on the morning of Friday, April 12, and continued unt 

1 Stovall's Life 0/ Toombs, p. 226. 



139- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION, 



377 



he following Sunday afternoon, when the little garrison 
urrendered and were allowed to march out with flying 
olors. Not a man was killed on either side. The next 
ay President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling upon 
le state governments for 75,000 troops. On Wednesday 
le 17th, Jefferson Davis replied with a proclamation 
4iich authorized the fitting out of privateers to attack 
le merchant shipping of the United States. On Friday 
le 19th, President Lincoln rejoined by proclaiming a 




FORT SUMTER 



ockade of the whole southern coast from South Caro- 
na to Texas inclusive, and declaring that Confederate 
pivateers would be treated as pirates. Thus on both 
JjJes was war most emphatically declared. The first 
i^tual bloodshed occurred on that same 19th of April, 
Viich by a curious coincidence was the anniversary of 
t,c bloodshed that ushered in the War for Independ- 
iice. On that day a regiment from Massachusetts, on 



3/8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV, I 

its way to Washington, was fired on by a mob as it was 
passing through Baltimore, and several men were killed. 
140. Limits of the Confederacy Defined. The ef- 
fect of the capture of Fort Sumter was like that of 
touching a lighted match to a powder magazine. There 
^, ,, , was a sudden and tremendous outburst of pa- 

The North .... 

accepts triotic feeling in all the northern states. There ( 
was no further talk of compromise. In the en- i 
deavor to avoid war, the North felt that it had gone as | 
far as reason or conscience would allow ; and now the | 
promptness and vigor with which it accepted the issue I 
of war were remarkable. Within a few weeks more than | 
300,000 troops had been put at President Lincoln's dis- 
posal. Men of all parties came to his support, foremost 
among them the Democratic leader. Senator Douglas, who 
declared that if sword and bayonet were to be allowed 
to contest the results of the ballot-box, then " the history 
of the United States is already written in the history of 
Mexico." 1 Douglas died in June, 1861, and his last 
words were a prayer for the preservation of the Union. 

North of the Ohio River and of Mason and Dixon's 
line, this practical unanimity of feeling prevailed. In 
the border states there was no such unanimity. In Ar- 
kansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, the 
popular feeling had been opposed to secession, 
the border but the doctrine prevailed that the Federal 
government had no right to employ military 
force against a seceding state. When compelled to 
choose between fighting against the South or against 
the North, those four states chose the latter alternative ; 
their governors refused to obey President Lincoln's call 
for troops, and presently the states seceded from the 

^ Since Mexico won its independence from Spain, in 1821, its condition 
had been one of chronic anarchy. 



§ I40. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 379 

Union and joined the Confederacy. There were many 
Unionists, however, in North Carolina and Arkansas 
(as also, indeed, in the mountainous regions of northern 
Alabama and Georgia). The people of the eastern parts 
of Tennessee, in spite of the action of their state gov- 
ernment, remained steadfastly loyal to the Union. In 
the western part of Virginia a solid block of ^^^^ yir- 
forty counties broke away and formed a new g'"'^- 
state, which was afterward admitted into the Union as 
West Virginia. By this separation Virginia was de- 
prived of nearly two fifths of her territory and more than 
one fourth of her population, and her rank among all the 
United States was reduced from fifth to ninth. 

Even as thus curtailed, Virginia was first in popula- 
tion among the eleven seceding states, and she added to 
the Confederacy a military strength more than propor- 
tionate to her numbers. In May, 1861, the Confeder- 
acy moved its government from Montgomery in Alabama 
to Richmond in Virginia, and made that city its capital. 
The possession of the Shenandoah Valley by importance 
the Confederacy made it easy, until toward the °^ Virginia, 
end of the war, to threaten the city of Washington with 
sudden capture ; and this circumstance seriously ham- 
pered the operations of the Federal armies. The rivers 
between Washington and Richmond constituted a series 
of strong natural defences against an army proceeding 
southward. The three ablest Confederate generals — 
Lee, Johnston, and Jackson — were Virginians, and but 
for the secession of their state, their swords would prob- 
ably have been drawn in defence of the Union. Thus 
in many ways the secession of Virginia was a serious 
blow to the Federal government. 

If Missouri had seceded, she would have added to the 
Confederacy a population somewhat larger than Vir- 



38Q 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV 




FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR. 



ginia carried over to it. 
Her military position, too, 
on the flank of Kentucky 
and Tennessee, was ex- 
tremely important. With 
Missouri securely held by 
a Confederate force, it 
would have been very diffi- 
cult for Federal armies to 
penetrate into the Confed- 
eracy by way of the Ten- 
nessee and Cumberland 
rivers. The majority of 
the people of Missouri 
were decidedly opposed to secession, but the government 
was strongly secessionist and might have succeeded in 
its project for committing the state to the cause 
of the South, had it not been for the prompt 
and resolute action of Francis Preston Blair, a lawyer of 
St. Louis, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commandant 

of the United States arse- 
nal in that city. In May 
and June, 1861, these two 
men overturned the state 
government and set up a 
loyal one in its place. In 
August, Lyon, having be- 
come brigadier-general in 
_ command of a small army, 
was defeated and killed at 
Wilson's Creek, but, in 
>pite of this, the Confed-, 
erates grew weaker, until! 
they quite lost their hold" 



Missouri. 




NATHANIEL LYON. 



j|i40. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 38 1 

upon the state. Owing to the position of Missouri in 
the field of war, the work of Lyon and Blair was equiva- 
lent to a tremendous initial victory for the North. 

Of the other two border states, Maryland remained 
firmly in the Union. In Kentucky there was at first 
some talk of preserving " neutrality " between 
North and South, which was of course impos- 
sible. Here, as elsewhere along the border, public sen- 
timent was so much divided that members of the same 
family espoused opposite sides. One of the sons of the 
venerable author of the Crittenden Compromise became 
a major-general in the Union army, while another son 
attained the same rank in the army of the Confederacy, 
President Lincoln, a native of Kentucky, knew well how 
to feel the popular pulse in that state. Among other 
things, he understood the importance of letting the 
Confederacy commit the first act of aggression upon its 
soil. This was done the first week in September, 1861, 
when a Confederate force of 1 5,000 men, under General 
Polk,^ established itself at Columbus, and prepared to 
seize the important position of Paducah, where the Ten- 
nessee River empties into the Ohio. At the same time 
another Confederate force, under General Zollicoffer, 
invaded the southeastern corner of Kentucky by Cum- 
berland Gap. At the news of these acts of invasion the 
Kentucky Legislature, by a heavy majority, voted that 
the stars and stripes should be displayed over the capitol 
at Frankfort. 

There was then a small Union force at Cairo, com- 

^ Leonidas Polk was related to James Knox Polk, eleventh President 
of the United States. Their grandfathers were brothers. Leonidas Poll 
was a graduate of the West Point Military Academy. He afterwards be- 
came an Episcopal clergyman, and at the beginning of the Civil War was 
Bishop of Louisiana. He then accepted a commission as major-generaJ 
in the Confederate army. 



382 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



manded by Ulysses Simpson Grant. This officer was a 
graduate of the West Point Academy, and had served in 
the Mexican War. In 1854, he had left the army and 
engaged in business. He was living in Illinois when the 
Civil War broke out, and entered the service in June 
as a colonel of the Illinois militia. At the beginning of 




•''. THE m\<. I 



THE SITUATION IN MISSOURI AND KENTUCKY, 1S61-62. 

September he was commanding the district of south- 
eastern Missouri, with headquarters at Cairo, when 
Polk occupied Columbus. Three days afterward Grant 
entered Kentucky and seized Paducah. This was equiv- 
alent to a Union victory, giving the Union army a hold 
upon the mouths of the two great rivers, the Tennessee 
and the Cumberland, which were like two highways into 
the heart of the Confederacy. Five days later the Ken- 
tucky Legislature, by a three fourths vote, instructed the 
governor to demand the removal of Polk and his Con- 
federate troops from the state. It was then moved that 
the withdrawal of Grant and his Union troops should 



J 



§§ 140, 141. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 383 

also be demanded, and this motion was defeated by 
a two thirds vote. Thus did Kentucky array herself 
decisively on the side of the Union. 

141. First Heavy Fighting. People wanted to 
have the war ended within three months, and were 
impatient for a great battle. On July i6, a force of 
about 35,000 men, commanded by General McDow- 
ell, began moving from Washington toward Rich- 
mond. At Bull Run, with about 23,000 Confederates, 
was General Beauregard, who had been McDowell's 
classmate at West Point. At Winchester, in the Shen- 
andoah valley, was a Confederate force of ^^ . , 

-' The first 

15,000, under Joseph Eggleston Johnston, con- bauieof 
fronted by a similar Union force under Rob- 
ert Patterson, a veteran of the war of 181 2. McDow- 
ell's intention was to attack and overwhelm Beauregard, 
and he relied upon Patterson's ability to detain John- 
ston at Winchester. But Johnston eluded Patterson, 
and reaching Bull Run on the 20th with one brigade, 
took command of the whole army there. From vari- 
ous causes all the forces had dwindled, so that on the 
morning of the 21st less than 19,000 Federals en- 
countered scarcely 15,000 Confederates. On both sides 
the fighting was well sustained considering the raw- 
ness of the troops.^ By the middle of the afternoon, 
McDowell seemed on the point of victory, when a fresh 
force from Winchester under Kirby Smith arrived on 
the scene and turned the scale. The Union army was 

1 General McDowell once told me that on the march to Bull Run it 
was impossible to keep those raw recruits from scattering to pick black- 
berries. General Sherman told me that just before the start for Bull 
Run, a newly enlisted captain insisted upon going home to New York for 
a few days " on business," and would have gone in utter defiapce of dis- 
cipline if Sherman, who was then a colonel, had not sternly threatened to 



384 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




driven from the field, but the victors were in no con- 
dition to follow up their advantage. About 5,000 men 
were killed or wounded. This battle began to teach 
people at the North that they must not expect to make 
a speedy conquest of the South. At the same time 

it strengthened the deter- 
mination of the northern 
people and incited them 
to greater exertions; 
while the South, in rejoic- 
ing over the victory, did 
not duly heed the proverb 
that "one swallow does 
not make a summer." 
Very little else was done 
at the East during the 
rest of the year 1861, ex- 
cept that the Confederate 
troops who had invaded 
West Virginia were driven out by McClellan and Rose- 
crans. In the autumn General McClellan succeeded 
the venerable General Scott as general-in-chief of the 
United States army, and for some time he devoted him- : 
self to the task of organizing and drilling the splendid 
force in front of Washington, which came to be known 
as the Army of the Potomac. 

have him shot as a deserter. Soon afterward President Lincoln came to 
visit the camp, and this indignant captain wall<ed up to his carriage and 
told him his tale of " tyranny." As he was finishing it, Sherman hap- 
pened to step within hearing, and Lincoln glanced at him with a droll 
twinkle of the eye. " Well," said Lincoln to the captain, " if Colonel 
Sherman threatened to shoot you, I would advise you not to trust him, 
for I really believe he would do it 1 " 



JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. 



{ 141. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 385 

About the end of the year, an affair occurred which 
might have dragged us into war with Great Britain. 
Two southern gentlemen, SHdell and Mason, -pj^^ j^^^^ 
were sent out by the Confederacy as commis- ^^^"^ 
^ioners respectively to France and to England, to seek 
aid from those powers. They ran the blockade, and at 
Havana took passage for England in a British steamer 
named the Trent. Some way out at sea, an American 
warship under Captain Wilkes overhauled the Trent, 
took out Mason and Slid ell, and carried them as pris- 
oners to Fort Warren, in Boston harbor. This act of 
Captain Wilkes was at first applauded, and the House 
of Representatives passed a resolution of thanks, but the 
British government demanded that Slidell and Mason 
should be given up. On sober second thought it was 
clear that the seizure of those gentlemen was unjustifi- 
able. It was the sort of thing that Great Britain had 
formerly done, and against which the United States had 
always protested. In 1856, Great Britain had consented 
to regard such kind of search and capture from neutral 
ships as illegal. President Lincoln, therefore, at once 
disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes and gave up the 
prisoners. This was in the highest degree creditable 
to President Lincoln and to the people of the United 
States, who heartily approved his conduct. 

The affair created much bitter feeling in England 
and America, and the feeling afterward grew more bit- 
ter when fast Confederate cruisers were allowed to slip 
out of British ports to prey upon American commerce. 
The most famous of these privateers was the ^^^ 
Alabama, which did great damage. After a atecruis- 

crs. 

while, the British government was warned by 

the United States minister that this sort of thing would 



386 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



not be endured, and thereafter means were found of pre- 
venting such cruisers from going out. 

142. A Revolution in Naval Warfare. Events hap- 
pened on the water in March, 1862, which were calcu- 
lated to make foreign powers think twice before ven- 
turing into a quarrel with the United States. The 
Confederates had seized the navy yard at Norfolk, in 






THE FIGHT BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC.l 

Virginia, and having found there the United States 
The frigate Merrimac, had transformed her into an 

Mernmac. ironclad ram with sloping sides and iron beak. Jl 
In Hampton Roads, the United States had a fleet of 
five wooden warships, probab\y'' equal in strength to any 
five ships in the world. On the 8th of March, the Mer- 
rimac attacked this fleet. Their shot bounded harm- 
lessly from the Merrimac's sloping iron sides, while 
with her terrible beak she rammed one of them, the 
Cumberland, and broke a great hole in her. The un- 
fortunate Cumberland sank, and but few of her men 
were saved. Then the Merrimac attacked the Congress, 

1 After Halsall's painting, now in the Capitol at Washington. 



I 



§ 142- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



387 



drove her aground, and forced her to surrender. Night 
came on, and before destroying the other three ships, 
the black monster waited for the morrow. The tele- 
graph carried the news all over the North, and with it 
consternation. What could avail against this new dan- 
ger ? Might not the Merrimac break up the blockade ? 
Might she not destroy all the shipping in New York har- 
bor, and bombard the city .-' Such fears were no doubt 
extravagant, but there was real ground for anxiety. 

But the very next day had a still greater surprise in 
store. Captain John Ericsson, the inventor ^]^g 
of the screw propeller, had lately invented the ^lonitor. 
turret ship ; and the first vessel of this class, the Moni- 
tor, had just been finished. She was a small flat 
craft, presenting very little surface for an adversary's 
balls to strike. Amidships there was an iron cylinder 
made to revolve by machinery, and this revolving cylin- 
der, or turret, carried two 
enormous guns which 
could throw such heavy 
balls as had never before 
been seen in war. She was 
said to look like " a cheese- 
box on a raft." It so hap- 
pened that this little Moni- 
tor arrived in Hampton 
Roads on the night of 
March 8. Next morning, 
as the Merrimac was steam- 
ing toward her next in- 
tended victim, the frigate 
Minnesota, this queer little 




JOHN ERICSSON.l 



1 From the unique marble bust modelled from life by Kneeland, and 
now in my possession, in my house at Cambridge. 



388 ' THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch, XV. 

craft came up and sent a stupendous ball thundering 
against the monster's iron side ; and then, as the turret 
swung around, another, and another, such a battering 
^, , , as never ship's side had felt before that day. 

The battle . -^ -' 

of the iron- The Mcrrimac stood it well, but her attempts 
to catch the Monitor with her beak were futile, 
for that nimbler craft, drawing much less water, could 
retire upon shoals, leaving her huge adversary baffled. 

In one respect, this was the most wonderful battle 
that ever was fought on the water. All the newest 
ships in all the navies in the world instantly became 
old-fashioned and discredited, and all great nations had 
to begin afresh and build new navies. As for the naval 
superiority of the North over the South, it was no more 
interrupted. Among the great men who saved the 
Union and freed the slaves, one of the most important 
was the man of science, John Ericsson. 

143. Confederate Lines of Defence in the South- 
west. The defensive line of the Confederates ex- 
tended through Kentucky, from the Mississippi River 
to Cumberland Gap, in the Alleghanies. Its centre 
was at Forts Henry, on the Tennessee River, and 
Donelson, on the Cumberland ; where it was opposed 

by General Grant with forces which presently 
Forts / ^ , r , , 

Henry and lormcd the Westernmost of the three great 

Federal armies, and came to be known as 

the Army of the Tennessee. The Confederate right 

wing extended eastward from Bowling Green, and was 

opposed by General Buell, with the middle great Fed-i 

eral army, afterward known as the Army of the Cum- 1 

berland. Buell's left wing was commanded by General i 

Thomas, who, in January, 1862, won an important 

victory at Mill Spring, and drove back the Confederate 

right. The next month, General Grant, aided by Com- 



§143- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



389 



modore Foote and his gunboats, captured Fort Henry 
and Fort Donelson, taking 9,000 prisoners. The vic- 
tory at Fort Donelson was a very brilliant and pictur- 
esque affair. After one of the Confederate lines had 
been carried by storm, and after the only avenue of re- 
treat had been cut off, the commander asked what terms 




THE FIELD OF WAR, 1S61-65. 



could be made. Grant's reply was, " No terms except 
an unconditional and immediate surrender can be ac- 
cepted. I propose to move immediately upon your 
works." This reply pleased people greatly, and U. S. 
Grant's initials were said to stand for " Unconditional 
Surrender." From that time he was one of the most 
conspicuous figures in the field. The capture of Fort 
Donelson was the first really great victory gained by 



390 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

either side, and it was indeed a severe blow to the Con- 
federates ; it forced them to give up nearly the whole of 
Tennessee. 

They made their next stand along the line from Mem- 
phis to Chattanooga, and began massing their forces at 
Corinth. Their leader, Albert Sidney Johnston, was 
regarded as one of the ablest officers in the southern 
army, and the second in command was Beauregard, who 
had been sent westward from Virginia. Grant advanced 
toward them as far as Pittsburg Landing, on the west 
bank of the Tennessee River, and Buell was on the way 
The battle ^^ J°^^ ^^"^ there. Johnston then moved up 
of shiioh. suddenly from Corinth in order to attack and 
crush Grant before Buell could join him. Thus occurred 
the great battle of Shiioh, April 6 and 7, in which over 
ioo,ocxD men were engaged, and nearly 20,000 were 
killed or wounded. General Johnston was killed on the 
first day, and General Beauregard succeeded him in 
command. For a time it seemed as if the Confederates 
were winning, but Grant kept his hold upon Pittsburg 
Landing till nightfall, when Buell's troops began to ar- 
rive. On the next day, after six hours of desperate fight- 
ing, the Confederates were obliged to retreat. Some 
weeks afterward they lost Corinth, and thus the centre 
of their second line of defence was broken. 

The navy of the United States played a great part in 
putting down the Confederacy. Many persons had be- 
lieved it would be impossible to make an effective block- 
ade of the entire coast, from Chesapeake Bay to the 
Rio Grande. Yet this was done. Of regular warships 
there were not nearly enough, but the government made 
The all sorts of craft useful, — merchant ships, 

blockade. stcam-boats, even Brooklyn ferry-boats, some- 
times partially armored. Almost anything that could 



§143- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



391 



float and carry guns was found serviceable, at least tem- 
porarily. During 1861 the forts at Hatteras Inlet were 
captured, and also Port Royal, in South Carolina, and 
sundry small islands along the coast. Such places 
served as points of supply for Union fleets, and also as 




ADMIRAL FARRAGUT. 



lairs from which to pounce upon blockade-runners, or to 
assail places on the coast. 

In April, 1862, soon after the battle of Shiloh, the 
Federal fleet, under Farragut and Porter, performed one 
of the most memorable exploits in naval history, when it 
ran past the forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, de- 
feated the Confederate fleet, captured the city of New 
Orleans, and got control of the river nearly The cap- 
up to Vicksburg. At the same time, the river New°^ 
j fleet, aided by a small land force under General Orleans. 



392 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




ADMIRAL PORTER. 



Pope, captured Island Number Ten,i thus opening the 

river as far down as Mem- 
phis. Then the river fleet ■ 
went down and completely} 
destroyed the Confederate 
river fleet at Memphis. 

This series of magnificent 
Federal victories ultimately 
moved the centres of Con- 
federate resistance in the 
West to the two immensely 
important positions of Vicks- 
burg, on the Mississippi ' 
River, and Chattanooga, in 
the southeastern part of 
Tennessee. These two places were defended with hero- 
ism and skill, and it was long before they yielded to the 
Federal armies. 

144. McClellan in Virginia. Compared with the 
rapid progress of the Union armies in the West, things : 
at the East seemed to 
stand almost still. Rich- 
mond, the Confederate cap- 
ital, was the objective point 
to be reached by the 
Army of the Potomac. 
General McClellan wished 
to advance against Rich- 
mond from the mouth ot 
James River ; but the gov- 
ernment wished him to 
march across Virginia in 
such a way as always to george b. mcclellan. 

^ This name indicates the tenth island below the mouth of the Ohio 
River. 




I 144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



393 



keep his army interposed between the Confederate army 
and the city of Washington. The route which McClel- 
lan took was a kind of compromise between these two 
methods. He advanced up the York River with his 




ROBERT EDWARD LEE. 



base on the York River instead of the James, while 
part of his army, under McDowell, was started The ad- 
on the direct road from Washington toward ag^^st 
Richmond by way of Fredericksburg. There Richmon<i 
was always a chance that some Confederate force might 
dart upon Washington through the Shenandoah valley ; 
and so that region was watched by small Union forces 
under Banks and Fremont. 



394 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



of Fair 
Oaks. 



The skilful Confederate generals, against whom Mc- 
Clellan was pitted, soon made havoc of these arrange- 
ments. Joseph Johnston at first directed the Con- 
federate operations. After detaining McClellan for a 
month in besieging Yorktown, Johnston abandoned that 
, . place and withdrew toward Richmond. In fol- 

The battle ^ . ^, „ , i i • 

lowing him, McClellan s army was brought mto 
a dangerous position ; part of it was on the ' 
south side of the Chickahominy River, part was on the 

north side, when a sudden 
rise of the river nearly cut 
the army in two. John- 
ston seized the opportunity 
to strike the southern half, 
and, in the bloody battle 
of Fair Oaks, May 31, it 
barely escaped destruction. 
In this battle Johnston was 
wounded, and the chief 
command was taken by 
Robert Edward Lee. 

Meanwhile, the famous 
Thomas Jonathan Jackson 
— already better known as "Stonewall" Jackson ^ — • 
had been doing remarkable things in the Shenandoah 
valley. He began operations in March, while the greater 
part of McClellan's army was upon the ocean on its way 
to the Yorktown peninsula. On March 23, with less than 
5,000 men, Jackson attacked Shields's division of g,ooo 
at Kernstown, and was defeated after a sharp fight in 

^ At one time during the first battle of Bull Run, the Confederates 
seemed to be defeated, and some were retreating in disorder when they 
passed Jackson and liis men still bravely holding their ground. " Look ! " 
shouted General Bernard Bee, as he was rallying his men, " Look ! there 
is Jackson standing like a stone wall 1 " 







"stonewall" JACKSON. 



§144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



395 



which some 1,200 men were killed and wounded. It was 
this evidence of Jackson's activity that led Mr. ^^^.j^g^jj • 
Lincoln to retain McDowell's corps upon the the Shen- 
Manassas-Fredericksburg route instead of send- valley; 
Ing it by sea with McClellan. It is interesting ^^™^'°*"- 
as showing how even a defeat may sometimes win the 




Fredeui'LksbuB 



feUuutoa 




fGordonsville 
CbaflpttesviJle 



'*a^ 



Scale of Miles. 



Richmond 

THE M.-H.CO. 



THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY AND VICINITY. 



ruits of victory. The alarm in Washington caused by 
Cernstown thus deprived McClellan of the services of 
'.6,000 men. It led to the sending of reinforcements to 



396 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

Banks and Fremont, until by the end of April there were 
40,000 Federals at sundry points west of the Blue Ridge. 
By that time McDowell was advancing southward, by 
way of Fredericksburg, to cooperate with McClellan, and 1 
Jackson undertook once more to prevent such coopera- 
tion. 

Early in May he suddenly passed through Brown's and 
Swift Run Gaps, with nearly his whole force of 1 5,000 
men, and everybody supposed that he was on his way to 
join Johnston at Richmond. But a little west of Char- 
lottesville he put all his men on the train for Staunton, 
and thence marched to the village of McDowell, where 
he overwhelmed about 7,000 of Fremont's force under 
Schenck, and drove it off to Franklin (May 8). 

On hearing of this affair. Banks retreated from Harri- 
sonburg to Strasburg, where he entrenched himself. At 
Front Royal, about eight miles distant, he kept an ad- 
vance guard ; but this did not save him from a surprise. 
Returning from the pursuit of Schenck, Jackson marched 
through Harrisonburg to New Market, from which point 
he disappeared in the wild solitudes of the Massanutten 
Mountains. This range he crossed, and by a 
Royal and rapid march through Luray reached Front 
Royal on May 23 and defeated the Union force 
there. This success left the way clear for him to move 
upon Newtown and cut off Banks's communications with 
the northern states. To avoid such a disaster. Banks 
abandoned his works at Strasburg and fell back upon 
Winchester, pursued and worried by Jackson, and losing 
over 2,000 prisoners and 9,000 stand of arms. On May 
25 Banks was driven from Winchester and retreated 
into Maryland, while Jackson followed as far as the Poto- 
mac River and threatened Harper's Ferry. 

These incidents created a panic in Washington. 



§144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



397 



McDowell's corps, which had advanced as far as Freder- 
icksburg on its way towards McClellan's army, was at 
once ordered to the Blue Ridge, and on May 31 its 
advance division, under Shields, had reached Front Royal, 
Fremont moved from Franklin to Harrisonburg, to head 
off Jackson should he move southward ; but Jackson 
had guarded Brock's Gap so carefully that Fremont was 




WASHINGTON MONUMENT AND CAPITOL SQUARE, RICHMOND. 

obliged to go northward to Moorefield and thence to 
Cedar Creek. On May 31 he had reached that point, 
where he was detained by Confederates skirmishing, 
while Jackson, returning from Harper's Ferry, slipped 
between his two adversaries, and on the first day of June 
arrived at Woodstock. Jackson then moved up the val- 
ley to Harrisonburg, closely followed by Fre- 
mont, between whom and Shields there inter- and Port 
vened a steep range of mountains and a swollen ^^" 
river, the bridges over which Jackson took care to burn. 



398 THE FEDERAL UNION, Ch. XV. 

The first point where it was possible for the two Union' 
generals to join forces was Port Republic. But Jackson 
prevented such a junction. On June 8 he defeated Fre- 
mont at Cross Keys and on the following day he defeated 
Shields at Port Republic. All this work required such 
awift marching that people jocosely spoke of Jackson's 
army as " Stonewall's foot cavalry." 

This campaign in the Shenandoah valley, although sub- 
ordinate to the campaigns of the main armies on the 
Yorktown peninsula, was of decisive advantage to the 
Confederates in crippling McClellan ; and for a while it 

„ , went far toward neutralizing the Federal victo- 

Results . .... 

of the ries at the West. It is much studied in mili- 

campaign. ^^^^ schools as showiug how great results may 
be achieved with small means. If the forces opposed to 
Jackson had succeeded in uniting against him they might 
have crushed him ; but his celerity and secrecy enabled 
him to defeat them in detail. The campaign was fin- 
ished just as the struggle for Richmond was coming to 
a crisis, and now, having made it completely sure that 
McDowell would not be able to unite his forces to those 
of McClellan, Jackson lost no time in joining Lee before 
Richmond (June 17-25). 

It was in order to be ready for cooperation with 
McDowell that McClellan had kept part of his large 
army north of the Chickahominy River. The danger of 
the position was illustrated by the battle of Fair Oaks 
already mentioned. If McDowell were not coming down 
by way of Fredericksburg, it was better for McClellan to 
concentrate his forces south of the Chickahominy and 
receive his supplies by way of the James River instead 
of the York. Such a movement is called a change of 
base. While McClellan was preparing for it, he was sud- 
denly attacked on his right wing (June 26) by Stonewall 



§144. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 39^ 

Jackson, who had arrived there instead of the much- 
desired McDowell. This was the beginning of 

^ 1 • A r 1 • '^^^ seven 

a week of severe fighting. After losing more days' bat- 
than 15,000 men, McClellan reached Malvern 
Hill, which Lee tried unsuccessfully to storm (July i). 
Next day McClellan moved to Harrison's Landing, with 
the intention of crossing the James and operating against 
Richmond from the south. But this was not allowed. 
A new combination of circumstances at Washington sud- 
denly worked a greater change in the situation than three 
months of hard fighting had done. 

In the .course of July the chief command of all the 
Union armies was given to General Halleck, an officer 
who had held command over all the West, and had thus 
caught some reflected glory from the achievements of 
Grant and Pope. For sometime McClellan. had com- 
manded only the Army of the Potomac. Now the scat- 
tered forces in northern Virginia were gathered under 
command of General Poj^e. Stonewall Jackson marched 
igainst Pope, and once more the Federals did just what 
itheir enemies wanted. Halleck ordered McClellan to 
abandon his operations against Richmond, and _, 

' '^ ' The second 

move his army around by sea to Aquia Creek, battle of 
|:here to unite it with Pope's. This movement 
^eft Lee's hands entirely free, so that he joined Jack- 
son, and with his full force struck Pope at Bull Run, 
'August 27-September 2, and totally defeated him. In 
hat bloody week the Union army lost more than 16,000 
men, and the Confederates lost nearly 10,000. 
I After this victory, Lee pushed on into Maryland, 
■.hreatening Baltimore and Washington, while wild ex- 
:itement prevailed throughout the northern states. All 
:he available forces near at hand, amounting to about 
^7,000, were given to McClellan, who advanced north- 



400 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



westward through Maryland to find the enemy. Lee 
Invasion of was disappointed at the coldness with which 
Maryland, j^-g j-j-Qops wcrc received in that state. The 



PEN N SYLVAN I 







THE WAR IN VIRGINIA, 1861-65. 

song, " Maryland, my Maryland ! " was for the moment 
popular at the South, but the Marylanders showed no 
desire to join the Confederacy, The most that Lee 
could hope to accomplish north of the Potomac was to 



§ 144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



401 



defeat the Federal army and then threaten or capture 
the city of Washington. That would have been no 
small blow to the Union cause, though not necessarily 
fatal. Lee's course was bold. There was a Union force 
of 11,000 men at Harper's Ferry, which Halleck had 
thought best not to withdraw trom that pomt. The 







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BRIDGE OVER THE ANTIETAM.l 



chance was too tempting to be lost, and Lee sent Stone 
wall Jackson to capture this Union force. It was tak- 
ing a serious risk, for McClellan might arrive and attack 
him before Jackson's return. But Jackson captured 
Harper's Ferry with its garrison, and was back again 
in time for the encounter with McClellan. With his 

^ From Battles and Leaders of the Civil Wa,r- 



402 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

whole force thus united, Lee had scarcely more than 
i;o,ooo men. The great strugsjle came on the 

The battle -^ ' a • , , 

ofAntie- 1 7th of September, at Antietam, where the 
^^' killed and wounded were more than 23,000. 

Lee, who was slightly worsted, retired very leisurely into 
Virginia. Many people felt that McClellan had proved 
himself incompetent for the position which he held. 
Early in November the president removed him from 
command and appointed General Burnside in his place. 
145. The Emancipation of the Slaves. The battle 
of Antietam marked an era in the progress of the war, 
for it gave to President Lincoln the occasion for taking 
a decisive step which he had for some time been medi- 
tating. When after the fall of Fort Sumter he called 
upon the state governments for 75,000 troops, he had no 
intention of interfering with slavery in the states where 
it already existed. That would have been contrary to 
the original policy of the Republican party, which aimed 
only at the prohibition of slavery in all the terri- 

Fugitive -' -r^, ,. • T T r ^• 

slaves pro- torics. But that policy was mtended tor times 
contra- of pcacc, and the war time, with its new re- 
'^^"'^" quirements, soon altered it. When armies 

were once in the field, what was to be done with run- 
away slaves who sought refuge in Federal camps ? The 
commanders could hardly be expected to return them 
to their masters. If the North had tried to acquiesce in 
the Fugitive Slave Law in order to prevent a civil war, 
it could not be expected tamely to endure it now that 
war had begun. But on what legal ground could a Union 
commander refuse to surrender fugitives ? At first, while 
people were still thinking in the old ways, there was a 
moment of puzzling over this question. But the diffi- 
culty was ingeniously met by General Butler, a Massa- 
chusetts lawyer and major-general of volunteers, who 



1 



) 145- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 4O3 

in May, 1861, was commanding at Fortress Monroe. 
A.mong the rules of modern warfare, designed to miti- 
gate its severity, one is that private property must, as 
[ar as possible, be respected. Soldiers are not allowed 
:o burn and plunder people's houses, and even when it 
is necessary to take articles of food, it is customary to 
pay for them. But such things as powder and ball^ 
jwords and cannon, things directly used in war, are not 
entitled to the respect thus paid to private property, 
rhey may be destroyed or confiscated ; in legal phrase, 
Lhey are "contraband of war." General Butler was 
something of a humorist. When some slaves who had 
:aken refuge in his camp were demanded by their own- 
ers, he refused to surrender them ; since they could be 
used in war, in building fortifications and in other ways, 
iie said they were " contraband " and he should there- 
Fore keep them. This answer hit the popular fancy, 
:omic papers had pictures of negroes singing, "Bress 
ie Lor', we am contraban'," and thus the Fugitive Slave 
Law practically received its death-blow. For some years 
in ordinary talk, " a contraband " meant a negro. 

To refuse to surrender runaways was one thing; to 
set slaves free was quite another. As the war went on, 
the anti-slavery feeling rapidly increased at the North. 
Some commanders undertook to set slaves free by pro- 
clamation. Fremont tried this in Missouri, in the sum- 
mer of 1861, and Hunter tried it in South Carolina, in 
the spring of 1862. But President Lincoln overruled 
these proclamations, as going far beyond the authority 
permissible to generals in the field. For this he was 
blamed by some impatient people, who charged him 
with being lukewarm in his hatred of slavery. But 
Lincoln was one of the most clear-sighted of men. He 
knew that a premature agitation of such questions in 



404 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV, 

the border states would not help the anti-slavery cause, 
and he knew that no great measure of reform is secure 
until it is demanded by public opinion. By the sum- 
mer of 1862 people had come to understand that if 
confiscating slave property could sap the Confederacy's 
strength, it was a sound military measure ; and besides 
this, it would make it more than ever impossible for 
England or France to give open aid to the South. It 
was also the clear dictate of common sense, that in 
waging such a terrible and costly war, the earliest op- 
Thepro- portunity should be taken of striking at the 
of^^ian°ci- causc of the trouble ; otherwise victory, even 
pation. when won, could not be final, but the seeds of 
future disease would be left in the body politic. Presi- 
dent Lincoln knew that the Constitution gave him no 
authority to abolish slavery, but there was a sound prin- 
ciple of military law that did. In 1836 John Quincy 
Adams had declared in Congress that, if ever the slave 
states should become the theatre of war, the govern- 
ment might interfere with slavery in any way that mili- 
tary policy might suggest. Again, in his speech of 
April 14, 1842, he said in words of prophetic force, 
" Whether the war be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this 
down as the law of nations : I say that the military 
authority takes for the time the place of all municipal 
institutions. Under that state of things, so far from its 
being true that the states where slavery exists have the 
exclusive management of the subject, the President of 
the United States, as commander of the army, has power 
to order the universal emancipation of slaves." It was 
upon this military theory that Lincoln acted. In an- 
nouncing it he seized the favorable moment when the 
tide of invasion had begun to roll back from Maryland. 
On the 22d of September, 1862, a few days after the 



5 145- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



405 



battle of Antie- 
tam, he issued his 
immortal procla- 
mation, announc- 
ing that on the 
following N e w 
Year's Day, in all 
such states as had 
not by that time 
returned to their 
allegiance, the 
slaves should be 
thenceforth and 
forever free. This 
did not affect the 
slaves in the loyal 
border states, who 
were left to be set 
free by other meas- 
ures ; but it was a 
guarantee that the 
reestablishment of 
the authority of 

1 From a photograph of the bronze group situated in Park Square, 
Boston, which was unveiled December 9, 1879. It is a duplicate of the 
Freedmen's Memorial Statue erected in Lincoln Square, Washington, 
which was unveiled by President Grant, April 14, 1876. It was designed 
by Thomas Ball. The kneeling negro is a faithful portrait of Archer 
Alexander, who was, I believe, the last fugitive slave captured in Missouri 
under the old state laws. At the time of his capture he was in the em- 
ploy of my dear friend, Rev. William Greenleaf Eliot, the late noble and 
revered Chancellor of the Washington University, at St. Louis. On the 
very day of his capture, March 30, 1863, the poor negro was restored to 
freedom by Dr. Eliot, with the aid of military law administered through 
President Lincoln's provost-marshal. The whole story, as thrilling as 
anything in Uncle Tom's Cabin, should be read in Dr. Eliot's beautiful and 
touching little book. The Story of Archer Alexander, Boston, iSSj. 




EMANCIPATION GROUP.l 



406 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

the United States government would witness the final 
abolition of slavery. 

146. Grant and Rosecrans in the West, etc. The 
Sioux Indians had for some time complained, prob- 
ably with reason, of ill treatment at the hands of 
white settlers and government officials. In the sum- 
mer of 1862, while the Union armies were busy at the 
South, these red men invaded Minnesota and Iowa, 
The Sioux and massacred nearly a thousand men, women, 
^^^' and children, with circumstances of the most 

horrible barbarity, A small Federal force soon sup- 
pressed these Indians, and several of their leaders were 
convicted of murder and hanged. 

Late in the summer of 1862, the Confederate army, 
under General Bragg, starting out from Chattanooga, 
Invasion of i^vadcd the state of Kentucky. Coming at 
Kentucky, ^^g same time with Lee's invasion of Mary- 
land, this move created much excitement at the North, 
but the Confederates gained nothing by it, and after a 
bloody battle at Perryville, October 8, they retreated , 
upon Chattanooga. \ 

Meanwhile Rosecrans, who commanded Grant's left 1 
wing at Corinth, was attacked by the Confederates, who 1 
hoped to drive him back upon the Tennessee River. Rose- , 
crans failed to defeat them at luka, September 19, but 
at Corinth, October 3 and 4, he won a victory. He was 
soon afterward appointed to command the Army of the 
Cumberland in place of Buell. On December 
of stone 31 and January 2, a great battle was fought 
between Rosecrans and Bragg at Stone River. 
More than i8,ocxd men were killed or wounded, and 
Bragg was obliged to retire from the field, but the Fed- 
eral army gained no decisive advantage, and no further I 
approach toward Chattanooga was made until the next ji 
summer. 



5146. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 407 

That New Year saw the first repulse of the Federal 
troops at Vicksburg, which they were preparing to in- 
vest. On December 29, General Sherman assaulted 
j.he bluffs north of the town, and was defeated, vicksburg 
The Confederates had made Vicksburg one of assaulted, 
the strongest military positions known to history, and 
all winter Grant labored in vain to get near enough to 
attack it. The problem was so remarkable that a briei 
explanation of it will be found interesting. 

The Mississippi River flows through a soft soil, in 
which it is continually cutting fresh channels and chang- 
ing its course. The strip of flat country, averaging 
about forty miles in width, which forms its basin, is in- 
tersected by a network of bayous or sluggish streams, 
sometimes deep enough to be navigable, and it is cov- 
ered with swamps and jungle. On these low, flat shores 
the Confederates could not build fortifications that 
could withstand the Federal river fleets. But on the 
eastern side the basin of the great river is bounded by 
the lofty plains of Tennessee and Mississippi, which 
terminate in precipitous bluffs ; and here and there, at 
long intervals, the river sweeps close up to the bluffs 
and washes their base. Among these points are Mem- 
phis, Vicksburg, Grand Gulf, and Port Hudson. These 
places stand on the summit of high bluffs, and they can 
destroy warships with a plunging fire, without incurring 
much damage in return. Hence it is almost impossible 
to assault them in front from the river ; the only way of 
approaching them safely is from the east or rear side. 

After the fall of Corinth had exposed Memphis to at 
tack from the rear, the Confederates lost con- , 

. .... Importance 

trol of the Mississippi. River down to Vicks- of vicks- 
burg. That place, as well as Grand Gulf and por? mid 
Port Hudson, they strongly fortified, and from ^°"" 



4o8 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




Vicksburg to Port Hudson, 
250 miles, they held the 
river in their grasp. Be- 
tween these two points the 
Red River empties into the 
Mississippi, and the Red 
River was the military road 
by which men and supplies 
could be sent from Texas, 
Louisiana, and Arkansas to 
the central and eastern re- 
gions of the Confederacy. 
In this way, too, the South 
could still communicate 
with Europe in a round- 
about way through Mexico. 
The capture of Vicksburg 
and Port Hudson by the 
Federals meant the cutting 



THE VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN, 1S63. 

off of one of the most important sources of supplies for 
the South, and the final completion of the blockade. It 
would be one of the most damaging blows that could be 
struck at the Confederacy. 



} 146. SLAVERY AND SECESSION, 4O9 

•Grant's first movement toward Vicksburg, in Decem- 
iber, 1862, was by the rear, through the state of Missis- 
sippi ; but by the time he had advanced from Corinth 
halfway toward Jackson, the Confederates succeeded in 
destroying the railroad behind him, and cutting Attempts 
off his supplies, so that he was obliged to re- p°oTcii 
treat in order to escape starvation. It was vicksburg. 
during this retreat that Sherman made the unsuccessful 
assault already mentioned. Notwithstanding Sherman's 
failure, it was for various reasons thought best to make 
the next attempt from the river, and accordingly about 
the first of February, 1863, Grant took his army down 
the river to Young's Point, on the west bank, opposite 
Vicksburg. 

In order to take the city, it was necessary to cross 
;he river and get into the rear of it, but this seemed 
lext to impossible. It was doubtful if any assault would 
iucceed where Sherman's had failed, between Vicks- 
Durg and Haines' Bluff; the ground was too difficult. 
3ut to land an army anywhere south of Vicksburg 
vas to put it in danger of starving ; for the guns of 
/icksburg were likely to prevent vessels from pass- 
ng down the river with food, and the guns of Port Hud- 
on were likely to prevent any such vessels from passing 
ip. During the whole of February and March, Grant 
vas busy with two experiments : i. He tried, by dig- 
ging canals and deepening chaimels, to make a con- 
lected passage through the network of bayous west of 
he Mississippi, so that supply ships might be sent be- 
Dw Vicksburg without coming within range of its guns. 
:. He tried to find a passage available for gunboats 
hrough the labyrinth of bayous to the north, so that 
nth. the aid of the fleet he might secure a foothold 
or the army beyond Haines' Bluff, and thence come 



410 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



down upon the rear of Vicksburg. Both plans were 
Titanhke in their boldness, both contended with insu- 
perable difficulties, and both failed. 

Grant's next scheme was so daring that none of his 
generals approved of it. While- Sherman's division 
kept threatening to assault Haines' Bluff, the rest of the 




GUNBOATS PASSING VICKSBURG BY NIGHT.l 



army was gradually moved down to Hard Times, and 
Movement Portcr's fleet ran down past the batteries of 
louth of Vicksburg and as far as Grand Gulf. Several 
Vicksburg. squadrons of supply ships also ran past, incur- 
ring more or less damage. In concert with these move- 

1 By permission, from the painting by James E. Taylor. This shows 
Admiral Porter's gunboat fleet passing the batteries at Vicksburg on the 
night of April i6, 1S63. In the foreground is seen a yawl in which Gen- 
eral Sherman is being rowed out to the flagship Benton, to consult with 
Porter. The original painting was made for General Sherman from 
sketches and plans furnished by Admiral Porter. 



I 146. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 4II 

ments, Grierson's cavalry made a brilliant raid through 
the eastern part of the state of Mississippi, cutting rail- 
roads and telegraphs, and diverting attention from 
Grant's operations. 

All this time Vicksburg was commanded by General 
Pemberton, but Johnston, with reinforcements, was on 
his way to take command of the place, and was already 
approaching the state capital, Jackson. Grant now pro- 
ceeded to carry out the boldest part of his scheme. 
On the last day of April he crossed the river to Bruins- 
burg, and next day defeated part of Pemberton's army 
at Port Gibson. The Confederates were thus forced to 
abandon Grand Gulf. On May 7 Grant advanced \vith 
his left wing toward Bolton and his right to- ^ briUiant 
ward Raymond. He did not try to keep up a campaign. 
line of communication with Grand Gulf ; his soldiers 
carried in their knapsacks rations for five days, and reck- 
oned upon finding poultry, beeves, and com, along the 
way. Sherman's division had now joined the rest of 
the army. In a second battle at Raymond and a third 
at Jackson, part of Johnston's army was defeated, and 
he was obliged to retreat to Canton. While Sherman 
tore up all the railroads about Jackson, Grant turned 
westward, encountered Pemberton at Champion's Hill, 
and defeated him with hea\y slaughter. The next day 
Pemberton tried to hold the bridge over Big Black River, 
and there in a fifth battle Grant was once more victo- 
rious. Pemberton retired into Vicksburg, and evacuated 
Haines' Bluff, which was no longer tenable. Grant im- 
mediately seized that fortress, which commanded all the 
northern approaches to Vicksburg, and his own supplies 
were now secure. This was the iSth day of May, eleven 
days since he had cut loose from Grand Gulf. In that 
brief time he had marched two hundred miles, defeated 



412 



THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 



two armies in five battles, captured about ninety cannon, 
and solved the problem of investing Vicksburg. There 
was something Napoleonic in this. 

Grant now made two attempts to take Vicksburg by 
storm, not wishing to allow time for Johnston to come 
to its relief. But the assaults failed, and Grant laid 
siege to the city. Unless Johnston should succeed in 
interfering, its fall was only a question of time. While 
these things were going on, a Federal army, under Gen- 
eral Banks, had laid close siege to Port Hudson. 

147. Lee's Victories. Meanwhile in Virginia things 
had been going badly for the Union. Burnside had super- 
seded McClellan in command of the Army of the Poto-| 
Theb tti s ^^c. On December 13, 1862, he assaulted Leej 
of Freder- fn a stronsT Dositiou at Fredericksburg, and was i 

icksburg ° ° I 

and Chan- defeated with a loss of 12,000 men. Burn-i 
ce orsvi e. ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ supcrscdcd by Joscph Hooker,! 

and little more was done till spring. At Chancellors- j 
ville, May i to 4, Hooker with 105,000 men attacked' 
Lee, who had only 57,000; but Lee handled his troops 
with such skill, that at every point where fighting was 
going on the Federals were outnumbered. This battle, 
in which over 20,000 were killed or wounded, was the 
worst defeat experienced by any Union army during tht 
war. Here Stonewall Jackson made a flank march against, 
the Federal right wing, which was one of his greatest 
achievements, as it was his last ; he was mortallyi 
wounded, and died a few days afterwards. To the Con 
federacy the loss was irreparable. 

148. The Turning of the Tide. After this great 
battle Lee pushed past Hooker's army and marched 
through western Maryland into Pennsylvania, threaten- 
ing not only Washington, but even Baltimore and Phila 
delphia. He could hardly hope to conduct a long cam 



5148. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 413 

paign north of the Potomac, but if he could win another 
such victory as that of Chancellorsville, he might per- 
haps capture Washington. The South still entertained 
a hope that England and France might in that Lee's in- 
case help the Confederacy, though since Lin- P^'ngy^^ 
coin's proclamation of emancipation it was no ^^"'^• 
doubt too late for anything of the sort. Lee's north- 
ward advance was watched by all the loyal states with 
great anxiety. Stanton, the secretary of war, had in- 
tended to have Hooker removed from command, when 
differences of opinion between Hooker and Halleck led 
the former to ask to be relieved. On the eve of battle 
the command of the Army of the Potomac was given 
to one of the ablest of its corps commanders, George 
Gordon Meade. 

The little town of Gettysburg controlled the roads 

between Lee's army and the Potomac River. If seized 

by Meade, it would threaten Lee's communications. 

A-Ccordingly both generals threw forward a part of their 

Forces toward that point, and on July i two The battle 

:orps of the Union army, under Reynolds and burgfjuiy 

Howard, encountered the Confederate van, '-3> '863. 

ander Ambrose Powell Hill, a little to the north of Get- 

ysburg. A severe battle ensued, in which Reynolds 

vas killed, and after another Confederate corps, under 

Swell, had arrived on the scene, the Federals were 

Iriven back through the town, but their antagonists did 

lot pursue them. The Federals were presently rein- 

orced by Hancock's corps, and took their stand along 

he crest of Cemetery Ridge, a chain of small hills just 

outh of Gettysburg. It was a position of formidable 

trength, and Meade brought up the rest of the army to 

ecure it. 

On July 2 the gallant Army of the Potomac was en- 



414 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



camped along Cemetery Ridge, and Lee's army con- 
fronted it in a concave line extending along Seminary 
Ridge and past the town of Gettysburg to Rock Creek. 
General Longstreet, with the Confederate right wing, 
attacked the projecting angle ^ formed by Sickles's corps 




BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 



in front of the hills called Round Top and Little Round 
Top. If Longstreet could have won these hills, the 
Union army might have been driven from the ridge and 

1 In military language such a projecting angle is called a salient. It 
is a weak formation, because there is a point in front from which the 
enemy's fire can enfilade or rake both its sides. In spite of this defect, 
the salient has its uses. 



§148. 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



4T5 



defeated. After a desperate fight, the Sickles angle 
was driven in, but the Federals held the Round Top 
hills securely. At the other end of the line there was 
also severe fighting ; Ewell tried to capture Gulp's Hill 
and gain the Baltimore road ; he secured a foothold on 




HANCOCK MEETING PICKETT's CHARGE AT GETTYSBURG.! 

Gulp's Hill and passed the night there, but at daybreak 
Meade attacked him with great fury and drove him off. 

Thus both the Gonfederate attacks on July 2 had 
failed, and both the Union flanks were safe. Lee's 
only remaining hope of defeating Meade was to break 
through his centre. About one o'clock, on July 3, he 
began a mighty cannonade, and after a couple of hours 

* From the cyclorama of the Battle of Gettysburg, by permission of 
I The National Panorama Co. 



4l6 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

sent forward General Pickett, with a column of 13,000 
men, against Hancock's position. This gallant and des- 
perate charge was repulsed with terrible slaughter, and 
the Union army remained victorious. Lee kept his posi- 
tion through the 4th of July, and next day began his 
retreat to Virginia. j 

In this tremendous battle about 88,000 Union troops ! 
were engaged, and their loss in killed, wounded, and 
missing was over 23,000. The Confederate army num- 
bered about 75,000, and its losses reached 23,000, besides 
5,000 prisoners. Probably no field of battle was ever, 
more obstinately contested. 

Scarcely had the news from Gettysburg reached peo- 
ple's ears when it was also learned that on the 4th of' 
July the great stronghold of Vicksburg had surrendered 
to General Grant. Since May 18 his grasp 
ture of upon that position had not been relaxed. 

ViclcsburcT* 

Johnston had not succeeded in approaching 
the place, or in disturbing Grant's operations in any 
way; and when people m the city were nearly starving,; 
and Pemberton saw that there was no hope of relief 
from outside, he surrendered the place, with his army 
of 29,000 men. A few days afterward Port Hudson 
surrendered to General Banks ; and in an extremely bril- 
liant campaign of eleven days Rosecrans forced Bragg's 
army out of his strong positions in middle Tennessee 
into Chattanooga. Grant was made a major-general in 
the regular army, and was henceforth the most conspicu- 
ous commander on the Northern side. The importance 
of the capture of Vicksburg could not be overrated. The 
military pressure which could be brought to bear upon 
the remaining portions of the Confederacy was greatly 
increased. The Army of the Tennessee was soon free 
to go and help the Army of the Cumberland. 



J 



§§ 148, 149- SLAVERY AND SECESSION, 4 1 / 

After Gettysburg and Vicksburg, it became clear to 
all open-minded observers that the South was playing a 
desperate and losing game. But its capacity for resist- 
ance was not yet at an end. 

149. How the "War was Supported. After war 
had begun, the cost of the Federal army and navy soon 
reached $1,000,000 per day, and before the end of 1863 
it had risen to three times that amount. To meet such 
formidable expenses, it was necessary to resort to un- 
usual ways of raising revenue. The duties on imposts 
were in many cases increased, and there were ^^^ Green- 
various kinds of internal taxes, as, for example, ^^'^'^s. 
on incomes, and on pianos, billiard-tables, gold watches, 
and other things classed as luxuries. Stamps were re- 
quired on all bank checks and receipted bills, as well as 
on many legal and commercial documents. Besides 
this increase of taxation. Congress resorted to borrow- 
ing sums of money, in exchange for which it issued 
bonds bearing interest at a specified rate ; at the end of 
a specified time such bonds were to be redeemed. But 
all these methods seemed insufficient, and in 1862 Con- 
gress passed the Legal Tender Act, authorizing the 
issue of small promissory notes, similar to bank bills. 
From their color these notes were called "greenbacks." 
They were made a " legal tender ; " that is to say, any 
debtor could offer them instead of gold in discharge of 
a debt, and the creditor could not refuse to receive them. 
There were only two exceptions to the legal tender 
quality of the notes. It was felt that the credit of the 
government would be better sustained, and its bonds 
more readily taken, if the interest on the national debt 
were to be paid in coin ; this was therefore decreed, 
and in order to get the needful coin, all custom-house 
duties had to be paid in gold. 



FACSIMILE OF MR. LINCOLN'S AUTOGRAPHIC COPY OF THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS, MADl 
BY HIM FOR THE SOLDIERS* AND SAILORS* FAIR AT BALTIMORE, IN 1864.* 



/n>cryC*^^ rrl^-ppa:^ y^.^-^Coo <aj p^^ .^AyCu^^-O/u^Zi:^ 

^ Fron Abraham Lincoln : A Histojy, by John G. Nicolay and John Hs 
By permission o£ the authors. 

For its quiet depth of feeling and solemn beauty of expression this speech 
rightly regarded as one of the great masterpieces of English prose. 



tff^ A/o ca^inf /h-trt^ eawAajeA^fftZ^^ uf*/ cm,'-^ fiUf^T 

/^Jt^tC^H't^ Jb^£S ^j>t.^1*>U*.4a/Ot Gr2W>«^«-«^«> /J*WB*^>^it«» 

(KeZt^r .^n-pW WhecXr ;^?^a«» c>Cc.a(j 'fCii'\j:>, a«7Vc^^^/i^ 
a^y^'fCa^^i:* /fCtiy\^-o "p^fu^ ,^iVy^ /kx.^-'/^^^ cwCu^i'vJtMtf 

"hfi^ yrCeu*/^ £> CL a.. g .o ^^w flr^u/^-.^ /^^vPC/ ^?^ {^\.dZZ*->^ 
'x/t^^oCA/ /^l^tst/ /■fiejCjZ* ^a>i^^o c^ />^e*«^ /Bni-^Z:^ i^JvLtn 
43r>V«« ^^/»v»4/ ^^^^^ a^t)^l^<yr*i>^n^*^':^c^/;^j£:^Aj'a^J^ 



420 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

All coin disappeared from circulation, even silver 
dimes and quarters. For a short time people accepted 
postage-stamps for small change, but soon Congress is- 
sued little notes for the purpose, and these remained in 
circulation for several years. The value of the green- 
backs fluctuated according to the extent of people's 
faith that they would ever be redeemed. A Federal 
victory would send them up, a Confederate success 
would send them down ; but as time went on without 
seeing the war ended, the downward tendency inclined 
to prevail. Early in 1862 the greenback dollar was 
equivalent to 98 cents in gold ; late in 1 863 it had , 
fallen to about 75 cents ; and the lowest point was 1 
reached in July, 1864, a year after Gettysburg and I 
Vicksburg, when it was worth scarcely more than 35 : 
cents. The prices of all articles bought with these 
paper notes rose to an extravagant point. 

An excellent National Bank act was passed in 1863. 
It had nothing to do with the old National Bank question 
that men argued and almost fought over in the days of 
Andrew Jackson. It was a device for guaranteeing the : 
issues of local banks in all parts of the country. It pro- 
vided that any bank which should deposit United States 
^, bonds with the United States Treasurer at 

The 

National Washington could issue notes to the amount 

of nine tenths of the par value of these bonds. ; 
Banks making such deposits were known as national 
banks. Since the notes were secured by the bonds, 
each national bank had the credit of the United States ^ 
behind it ; consequently the notes were accepted as 
widely as greenbacks. Hitherto the notes of a state 
bank were liable to be refused in places distant from 
home, and this was often inconvenient and annoying. 
Afterwards the notes of state banks, that had not 



§149. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 421 

obtained the national guarantee, were extinguished by 
putting a tax upon them. 

In May, 1863, as voluntary enlistments seemed to be 
proceeding too slowly for the needs of the army. Con- 
gress passed an act providing for a conscrip- ^^^ ^^^^^ 
tion or draft. This act was not a severe one, R'°*S' 
nor was it very rigorously enforced. Any conscript, or 
" drafted " person, could be exempted from service by 
hiring a substitute, or providing 1^300 for that purpose. 
Various other exemptions were permitted. But the 
draft was generally disliked, and served to sharpen and 
embitter the discontent which prevailed after the defeat 
at Chancellorsville. In some places the wave of feeling 
grew so strong that even the glorious victories of the 
first week in July failed to check it. In New York, 
on the 13th of that month, resistance took on the 
form of a riot, and a mob of ruffians held control of 
the city for four days, burning and plundering. The 
negro race, as the innocent cause of the war, was an ob- 
ject of special odium and violence ; many negroes were 
hanged to lamp-posts, an asylum for colored orphans 
was burned, and the lives of prominent abolitionists were 
threatened. It was necessary to call a few regiments 
from the army, and they quickly dispersed the rioters 
with heavy slaughter. 

The Confederate States could raise no revenue from 
imports, for all their ports were blockaded, and from 
internal taxes on a great variety of articles Distress at 
they could not raise nearly so much as the ^^^ South. 
United States. They issued bonds and notes which 
fell in value as the war went on until they became mere 
waste paper. In the autumn of 1863 a suit of clothes 
in Richmond cost $700 in currency, and flour was $100 
per barrel ; before the war ended, it was $ 1 500 per 



422 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

barrel. Conscription was resorted to early in the war ; 
late in 1863 it was extended to all men between the 
ages of 17 and 45, and substitutes were not allowed. 

150. The Campaign in Tennessee. In September, j 
Rosecrans compelled Bragg to evacuate Chattanooga,! 
but in manoeuvring among the mountains south of that i 
place he became exposed to attack under unfavorable 1 
circumstances. Longstreet was sent by Lee from Vir- 1 
ginia to Bragg's assistance, and thus strongly rein- 
T'u u .., forced, Bragg came to blows with Rosecrans 

The battle . °° 

ofchicka- in the valley of Chickamauga, September 19 
'"^"^^' and 20. It was a fearful contest, in which 
120,000 men were engaged, and over 28,000 were kilicu ' 
or wounded. Portions of the Federal right wing and I 
centre were routed, but seven divisions from left, cen- 
tre", and right, under Thomas, firmly held their ground. 
But for this, Chickamauga might have been a Federal 
disaster capable of offsetting the victory at Gettysburg. 
No war known to history has seen more magnificent 
fighting than that of Thomas at Chickamauga. As it 
was, the advantage in that battle was slightly with the 
Confederates. 

Rosecrans hel.d Chattanooga, which was the prize of 
the campaign, but Bragg besieged him there, occupy- 
ing the strong positions of Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
sionary Ridge, and cutting off most of the avenues of 
supply. For a short time, the Union army in Chatta- 
nooga seemed in danger of starving. In October, Rose- 
crans was removed, and the command of the Army 
of the Cumberland was given to Thomas. The Armiy 
of the Tennessee, now commanded by Sherman, was' 
brought up from Vicksburg. Grant was put in com- 
mand of both these armies, and of all forces west of 
the Alleghanies. Hooker was sent from Virginia with 



§§ 150, 151. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 423 

reinforcements, so that in the next great battle portions 
of all three of the main Federal armies took ^, , , 

The battle 

part. That battle, which was fought about ofchatta- 
Chattanooga, November 24 and 25, was the only 
one of the war in which the four most famous Union 
generals — Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan — 
were all present together. Bragg was totally defeated, 
and the problem next in order was to cut down the area 
of the Confederacy to the four states of Georgia, the two 
.Carolinas, and Virginia. 

151. General Grant in Virginia. In March, 1864, 

Grant was made lieutenant-general, — a rank which 

before him had been held only by Washington and 

Scott among United States commanders. Henceforth, 

Grant commanded all the Federal armies, but Grant 

, ^ave his immediate attention to the Army of J^nant-geli- 

i 'he Potomac, which Meade continued to com- ^''^i- 

Hand under his supervision. Grant advanced directly 

t igainst Lee along the difficult route from Fredericks- 

1 Durg to Richmond, and in the course of May and June, 

1 1864, in the fearful battles of the Wilderness, Spottsyl- 

;ania, and Cold Harbor, he lost 40,000 men, and at 

ii ength reached the Chickahominy River, near McClel- 

i an's old positions. He did not stay there, but crossed 

he James River and advanced upon Petersburg, where 

-ce continued to hold him at bay till the next spring. 

n the course of the summer, Lee was even able once 

iiore to alarm the government at Washington by send- 

ng Jubal Early on an expedition through the Shenan- 

oah valley. After a romantic campaign. Early was 

ompletely defeated by Sheridan. On one occasion, Oc- 

Dber 19, while Sheridan was at Winchester, Early sud- 

cnly attacked his army at Cedar Creek, nearly twenty 

liles away. The Union army was driven back about 



I 




S/ieriUan. 



Meade. 



The portrait of Grant is the one referred to in connection with the 
Lincohi portrait on page 373. The other four are from the collection of 
the Massachusetts Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. 



§§ I5I-»S3- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 425 

seven miles. Meanwhile, Sheridan, who had heard the 
distant sound of cannon, was galloping at full speed to- 
ward the scene of action. As he approached the field 
and met squads of fugitives on the road, he shouted, 
"Turn, boys, turn; we're going back." One and all 
rallied to his side, and defeat was soon turned into 
victory. 

152. The Capture of Atlanta. After Bragg's defeat 
at Chattanooga, he was superseded by Joseph Johnston, 
who was obliged to retreat further and further into 
Georgia before Sherman's superior force. After the 
three battles of Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, 
in which about 32,000 men were killed or wounded, 
Sherman reached* Atlanta. Johnston was superseded 
by Hood, who made several bloody but unavailing sor- 
ties, and, on September 2, Sherman took Atlanta. 

153. The Approach of the End. The South was 
nearly exhausted, although Lee's prolonged resistance, 
and such threatening attempts as Early's, still disguised 
the fact from many people. Clothes, food, and imple- 
ments of war were getting scarce, and the blockade was 
kept up so strictly that supplies could not get 

into southern ports. One by one these ports tion of the 
had themselves fallen into the hands of the 
Federal navy, and one of the last was Mobile, the har- 
bor of which was finally closed by Farragut's victory, 
in August, 1864. Nothing was left but Fort Fisher, in 
North Carolina, which surrendered to General Terry 
and Admiral Porter, in the following January. In June, 
1864, the most famous of the Confederate cruis- ^. , 

^ The fate 

ers on the ocean, the Alabama, encountered the of the Ala- 
United States frigate Kearsarge off the coast 
of France, and in a fight of less than an hour was knocked 
to pieces and sunk. 



426 



THE FEDERAL UNION, Ch. XV. 



The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln for a 
second term, and with him they nominated for vice- 
president a War Democrat, Andrew Johnson, who, after 
^, , the fall of Fort Donelson, had been appointed 

The elec- '^ ^ 

tion of military 2:overnor of Tennessee. A faction of 

1864 

radical Repubhcans, who were dissatisfied with 
Lincoln, nominated Fremont, but he withdrew from the 
contest before the election. The Democrats nominated 
General McClellan, and in their platform called for a 
cessation of hostilities on the ground that the war was 
a failure. In this election the eleven states of the Con- 
federacy, of course, took no part. Of the electpral votes, 
Lincoln obtained 212, and McClellan 21. 

154. Sherman's March to the Sea.* After Sherman 
took Atlanta, Hood moved northwestwardly into middle 
^^ ^ , Tennessee, hoping to draw Sherman after him 

The battle . _, -r- i 

of Nash- and relieve Georgia. But the Federal supe- 
riority in numbers was such that Sherman, 
could now afford to divide his army. He sent back 
part of it under Thomas to look after Hood. As for 
himself, he continued his march through Georgia. 
At Franklin, November 30, Hood fought a sanguinary 
drawn battle with the advanced portion of Thomas's 
army under Schofield. He encountered Thomas himself 
in the great battle of Nashville, December 15 and 16, 
where 73,000 men were engaged. Hood's army was 
routed and scattered, and formidable resistance at the 
West thus came virtually to an end. 

About the middle of November, Sherman had started 
from Atlanta with 60,000 men, and marched through 
Georgia to the seacoast, where he captured Savannah 
^^ , iust before Christmas. All along the three 

The march •* _ ^ ° 

through hundred miles of his march he destroyed the 
°'^^'^' railroads and devastated a belt of fertile coun- 
try sixty miles in width, destroying the last resources 



§ 155. 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



427 



that might be available for the remnant of the Confed- 
eracy in the Carolinas and Virginia. 

155. The End of the War. It thus became impos- 
sible for Lee to hold out much longer. In February, 
Sherman began his advance northward through the 
Carolinas, again encountering Johnston, whom he de- 
feated at Bentonville, March 19. Lee's last chance 
was to abandon Richmond to its fate and effect a junc- 




VILLAGE OF APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE.i 

tion with Johnston. This scheme was frustrated by 
Sheridan in the battle of Five Forks, April i, which 
turned Lee's right flank and threatened his rear. Next 
morning, the Confederates were obliged to abandon 
Petersburg. Their government fled from Rich- Lee's sur- 
mond, and Lee, driven westward, was headed A^'^o^at- 
off at Appomattox Court House, where, on the tox. 
9th of April, he surrendered to Grant the remnant 

1 From a war-time photograph reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the 
Civil War. The house on the right, with the veranda, is Mr. McLean's 
house, in which the articles of capitulation were agreed upon and signed. 



428 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



of his army, only 26,000 men. A fortnight later, 
Johnston surrendered his army to Sherman. On the 
loth of May, Jefferson Davis was captured near Irwins- 
ville, in Georgia, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress 
Monroe.^ 

The public rejoicings at the end of the war were 




Copjrisht, 1887, bj The Centurj Co. 
UNION SOLDIERS SHARING THEIR RATIONS WITH CONFEDERATES AFTER 
lee's SURRENDER.2 

turned into such deep and heartfelt sorrow as has sel- 
dom been caused by the death of any public man. On 
the evening of April 14, as President Lincoln was sit- 
ting in a box at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, with 
wife and friends about him, a man came quietly into 
the box behind him and shot him through the head. 

^ In 1866, Davis was indicted for treason, but was released on bail in 
the following year, and the proceedings against him were dropped. His 
later years were spent quietly at his home in Mississippi. He died in 
1889. 

2 From a war-time sketch reproduced in Battles and Leaders of thi 
Civil IVar. 



} 155. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 429 

The assassin then leaped upon the stage, shouting, 
" Sic semper tyrannis " (So be it always to ^, 

"^ . . •' The assas- 

tyrants). One of his spurs caught in the folds sination of 
of the American flag that was draped in front 
of the box, so that he was thrown heavily to the floor 
and broke a leg. The confusion was so great that in 
spite of this accident he escaped through a stage door. 
The man who had chosen this theatrical way of com- 
mitting murder was a young actor named John Wilkes 
Booth. The crime was part of a conspiracy, and, on 
that same evening, the secretary of state, William 
Seward, was attacked and stabbed, though not fatally, 
in his own house. The details of the conspiracy were 
unravelled. Booth was hunted down by soldiers and 
shot in a barn ; four of his accomplices were hanged, 
and others imprisoned for life. The conspirators had 
hoped to paralyze the government, but within three 
hours after the noble and beloved Lincoln had passed 
away, Andrew Johnson had begun to act as president. 

topics and questions. 
129. Review of the Situation as to Slavery. 

1. How the Ohio River came to be a dividing line between 

freedom and slavery. 

2. Concessions to slaveholders : 

a. The apportionment of representation. 

b. The slave trade. 

c. Fugitive slaves. 

3. The first dispute over the slavery question and how it 

was compromised. 

4. Why did the slaveholders press a second time for more 

territory 1 

5. How did they secure it ? 

6. Westward expansion and the third opening of the slavery 

question. 
13a The Compromises of 1850. 

I. Settling the slavery question forever. 



430 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

2. The question up again in the case of California. 

3. Henry Clay's efforts to satisfy both parties. 

4. The two essential points of the compromise measures. 

5. The accession of Fillmore to the presidency. 

6. The invasion of Cuba. 

7. The election of 1852. 

131. The Slavery Question Uppermost. 

1. The slavery discussion renewed. 

2. New leaders of the people. 

3. The Fugitive Slave Law : 

a. Its design. 

b. The law of 1 793. 

c. The rise and character of the " personal liberty " laws. 

d. The law of 1850. 

e. Its denial of a trial by jury. 

f. More stringent "personal liberty " laws. 

g. Effect of the enforcement of the law on the North. 
h. The Anthony Burns episode. 

4. Uncle To?n^s Cabin. 

5. The " underground railroad." 

6. Filibustering expeditions and their motive. J 

7. The Ostend Manifesto. 1 

132. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 

1. Why was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise desired ? 

2. How had some southern statesmen viewed it? 

3. Tell about Douglas, and his interest in the Platte country. 

4. What were his views about admitting states as slave or 

free? 

5. How was his theory named, and why ? 

6. What were the leading features of his famous bill ? 

7. What was the effect of its passage on the North and 

the South ? 

8. Describe the origin of the Republican party. 

9. What change took place in the character of the Demo- 

cratic party ? 

10. Tell the story of the struggle for Kansas. 

11. Give an illustration of the evil passions kindled by this 

strife. 

133. The Know-Nothing Party. 

1. What led to the formation of this party? 

2. Tell its leading principles. 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 43 1 

3. Account for its peculiar name. 

4. Into what party did it develop ? 

5. What parties contended in the elections of 1856, and with 

what success ? 

134. A Situation Full of Danger. 

1. The South alarmed by the Republican party. 

2. The bold demands of the southern leaders. 

3. The acquiescence of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan- 

4. The Dred Scott case : 

a. Dred Scott's life in Illinois and Minnesota. 

b. What suit did he bring in Missouri, and why ? 

c. The decision of the Supreme Court- 

d. The practical effect of this decision. 

5. The resumption of the slave trade. 

6. Forcing a slave constitution on Kansas. 

7. A break heralded in the Democratic party. 

135. The Debate between Lincoln and Douglas. 

1. The life of Abraham Lincoln: 

a. His parentage. 

b. His schooling. , 

c. His early business career. 

d. His pohtical service. 

e. His insight into men and things. 

f. His power in oratory and debate. 

g. Traits of character. 

2. The occasion for the debate. 

3. The effect on Douglas's career. 

136. Differences Past Healing. 

1. The career and character of John Brown, 

2. His raid on Harper's Ferry, and the result 

3. The motive that led to it. 

4. The effect on the southern mind. 

5. The four parties in the election of i860. 

6. The result of the election, and its cause. 

137. The Secession of Several States. 

1. The action of South Carolina. 

2. The action of other states. 

3. A new government organized. 

4. Its constitution and chief officers. 

5. United States forts and arsenals. 

6. The Crittenden Compromise, 



432 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

7. The Peace Conference. 

8. The uncertain state of northern feeling. 

9. Lincoln at the White House. 

138. A Survey of the Situation. 

1. The changes of seventy years : 

a. In the population of Great Britain and Ireland. 
l>. In the population of tlie United States. 

c. In the merchant shipping of the United States. 

d. In the population of the free states and slave, 

e. In the wealth of the free states and slave. 

2. A military advantage of the South, 

3. Three disappointments of the South : 

a. As to the attitude of all the slave states. 

d. As to the attitude of the northern Democrats. 

c. As to the attitude of France and England. 

4. The blockade expected by the South, and why ? 

5. The effect of the blockade on cotton exports and Enghsh 

business. 

6. The refusal of France to recognize southern independence. 

7. The refusal of England tq recognize southern indepen- 

dence. 

139. Beginning of the War. 

1. The capture of Fort Sumter: 

a. The ownership of the fort if the right of secession 
existed. 

d. The ownership of the fort if the right of secession 

did not exist. 
c. President Buchanan's attitude towards the question, 
ti. President Lincoln's action on the question, 

e. The warning of Robert Toombs, 

f. The action of Jefferson Davis, 
^. The bombardment, 

2. Three proclamations. 

3. The first bloodshed. 

140. The Limits of the Rebellion Defined, 

1. Effect on the North of the capture of Fort Sumter. 

2. The patriotic stand of Douglas. 

3. The feeling in the border states. 

4. Union sentiment in the South. 

5. How Virginia gave strength to the Confederacy, 

6. How Missouri was saved to the Union, 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 433 

7. How Kentucky's stand was determined : 

a. Divisions in public sentiment. 

b. President Lincoln's policy. 

c. The Confederate invasion and its effect. 

d. The Union reply. 

e. The action of the Kentucky legislature. 
141. First Heavy Fighting. 

1. The battle of Bull Run. 

2. Its effect on the North and the South. 

3. Other military events in the East ; 

4. The Trent affair: 

a. The Confederate commissioners. 

b. Their capture. 

c. Why they were given up. 

5. Confederate cruisers. 
A Revolution in Naval Warfare. 

1. The transformation of the Merrimac. 

2. The havoc it wrought in Hampton Roads. 

3. The consternation of the North, 

4. The Monitor and its turret. 

5. The battle of the ironclads. 

6. The effect of this battle on the navies of the world. 
Confederate Lines of Defense in the Southwest. 

1. The position of the first Confederate line. 

2. The armies opposed to the Confederates. 

3. General Thomas and the Confederate right. 

4. General Grant and the Confederate centre. 

5. The capture of Fort Donelson and its consequences (i) 
for Grant and (2) for the Confederacy. 

6. The position of the second Confederate line. 

7. The battle of Shiloh and the result. 

8. The blockade of the coast. 

9. The Mississippi opened from below. 

10. The Mississippi opened from above. 

11. The only Confederate strongholds left. 
McClellan in Virginia. 

1. McClellan's plan of advance against Richmond. 

2. The government's wish, and the reason for it. 

3. The route determined upon. 

4. Measures to guard Washington. 

5. The siege of Yorktown. 



434 "^^^ FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

6. The battle of Fair Oaks. 

7. The campaign in the Shenandoah valley. 

a. The aim of " Stonewall " Jackson. 

b. How Jackson's defeat at Kernstown won the fruits of 

victory. 

c. Further manoeuvres to prevent the junction of McDow 

ell with McClellan. 

d. Gain to the Confederates from the campaign. 

e. Why the campaign is much studied in military schools. 

8. The danger of McClellan's position. 

9. The seven days' battles. 

10. Halleck and his disposition of the Union armies. 
It. The second battle of Bull Run. 

12. Lee's invasion of Maryland and his reception there. 

13. The capture of Harper's Ferry. 

14. The battle of Antietam, and what came of it. 

145. The Emancipation of the Slaves. 

1. Why Lincoln had no thought at first of interfering witt 

slavery. 

2. The problem of dealing with runaway slaves. 

3. The rule of modern warfare relating to private property. 

4. The rule of modern warfare relating to " contraband 0; 

war." 

5. General Butler's solution of the "runaway slave "' probi 

leni. 

6. Union commanders freeing slaves by proclamation. 

7. Why Lincoln overruled such proclamations. 

8. Growth of the feehng that slavery should be abolished, 

9. A possible method proposed by John Quincy Adams. 

10. Lincoln's immortal proclamation. 

146. Grant and Rosecrans in the West. 

1. The war with the Sioux. 

2. Bragg's invasion of Kentucky. 

3. Victories by Rosecrans. 

4. Grant's investment of Vicksburg: 

a. The Mississippi River and its basin. 

b. Points of strategic advantage. 

c. What the capture of Vicksburg involved. 

d. Grant's first movement against Vicksburg. 

e. Sherman's repulse. 

f. Grant's second movement. 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 435 

g. Difficulties to be overcome. 
h. Two experiments and their outcome. 
/. The initial movements of Grant's third scheme. 
j. Eleven days of fighting, and the results. 
k. Vicksburg not yet taken. 
Reverses in the East. 

1. A change in the command of the Army of the Potomac. 

2. The battle of Fredericksburg. 

3. Another change in the command. 

4. The battle of Chancellorsville. 

5. The death of Stonewall Jackson. 
The Turning of the Tide. 

1. Lee's invasion of the North, and what he hoped to gain 
by it. 

2. A change in the command of the Army of the Potomac. 

3. The strategic importance of Gettysburg. 

4. The first day's fight at Gettysburg, and its issue. 

5. The second day's fight, and its issue. 

6. The third day's fight, and its issue. 

7. Numbers engaged and losses suffered. 

8. The capture of Vicksburg. 

9. The capture of Port Hudson. 
10. Importance of the capture of Vicksburg. 

. How the War was Supported. 

1. The cost of the army and navy. 

2. Unusual ways of raising revenue. 

3. The resort to borrowing. 

4. The Legal Tender Act: 

a. Why the notes under this act were called greenbacks. 

b. Why they were called legal tender. 

c. Two exceptions to their legal tender quality. 

d. Substitutes for cash. 

e. Fluctuations in the gold value of greenbacks. 

5. The National Bank Act. 

6. The advantage of national bank notes over those of the 
old state banks. 

7. The Draft Act, and how it was received. 

8. The New York riots. 

9. Revenue in the Confederate States. 

10. Prices of staple articles in Confederate money. 

11. Conscription in the South. 



436 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

150. The Campaign in Tennessee. 

1. The battle of Chickamauga. 

2. The Union army shut up in Chattanooga. 

3. Reinforcements for the besieged. 

4. The battle of Chattanooga. 

151. General Grant in Virginia. 

1. Grant made lieutenant-general. 

2. His advance from Fredericksburg to Petersburg. 

3. Early sent to the Shenandoah. 

4. Defeat turned to victory. 

152. The Capture of Atlanta. 

1. Bragg superseded. 

2. Battles fought to reach Atlanta. 

3. Johnston superseded. 

4. Atlanta taken. 

153. The Approach of the End. 

1. The exhaustion of the South concealed. 

2. Effect of the blockade. 
3". The loss of the southern ports. 

4. The fate of the Alabama. 

5. Nominations for the presidency. 

6. Result of the election. 

154. Sherman's March to the Sea. 

1. Hood's plan to retrieve Georgia. 

2. How Sherman met it. 

3. The battle of Nashville. 

4. The march through Georgia. 

5. The destruction of property. 

155. The End of the War. 

1. Sherman's march northward. 

2. Lee's last chance. 

3. How Sheridan thwarted it. 

4. Petersburg captured. 

5. Lee's surrender. 

6. Johnston's surrender. 

7. The assassination of Lincoln. 

8. The crime a part of a conspiracy. 

suggestive questions and directions. 

I. What was it that made compromises on slavery questions so 

desirable.? What was the object of these compromises ?; 



;h, XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 437 

What might have happened if these compromises had not 
been made .-^ What did happen at last in spite of all com- 
promises that were planned to avert it ? 

2. What was the object of the Fugitive Slave Law ? What rea- 

sons were given for it ? What reasons were urged against 
it? The United States Constitution seemed to support 
which view ? The moral sense of people in general inclined 
to which view ? 

3. Was the " underground railroad " legal or illegal ? Was it a 

sin for a slave to run away from his master? Was it a 
crime? Why was Canada a place of safety for him when 
a free state was not? What is a dilemma? Into what 
dilemma did the Fugitive Slave Law put law-abiding citi- 
zens who believed slavery to be wrong ? 

4. What was the first political party that went into a presidential 

election on a platform of hostility to slavery? What was 
the first successful political party on this platform ? 

5. What was the doctrine of squatter sovereignty ? What is the 

doctrine of local option in temperance matters ? 

16. How did the South defend their view that it was right to 
secede ? What is the constitutional argument against seces- 
sion? Was the Constitution of the United States made by 
the people or by the States? Has the power that made the 
Union the right to dissolve it? Whose property was Fort 
Sumter early in 1861 ? Why did the South view its at 
tempted reinforcement as an act of war? Why did the 

I North view the discharge of the first cannon upon Sumter 

|j as an act of war? 

[7. Number 11, of the Old South Leaflets, general series, contains 

I Lincoln's first and second inaugural addresses, his prelimi- 

nary and final emancipation proclamations, and his speech 
at the dedication of the national cemetery at Gettysburg. 
Read them, and find answers in them to such questions as 
these : 

a. What stand did Lincoln take about the Fugitive Slave 
Law? 

b. How did he propose to use his power about Sumter and 
other government property ? 

c. What did he say about continuing the mail service in the 
seceding states? 

d. Tell some of the objections he urged against secession. 



43^ THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

e. What did he conceive as a possible good reason for revo- 

lution ? 

f. After four year's of w^ar, what striking thought does he ex- 

press in his second inaugural about slavery ? 

g. Explain his statement that the cause of the conflict ceased 

before the conflict itself ended. 

h. Commit to memory the closing words of the first inau- 
gural, beginning, " In your hands," etc. 

/. Commit to memory the closing words of the second in- 
augural, beginning, " With malice towards none," etc. ; 

j. Commit to memory Lincoln's Gettysburg address. ' 

8. Find passages in the addresses mentioned, or in incidents of 

Lincoln's life, to show these traits : 

a. His spirit of fairness towards those who would or did 

secede. 

b. His respect for laws whether he liked them or not. 

c. His freedom from passion and bitterness. 

d. His longing for peace and reconciliation. 

e. His devotion to the Union. 

f. His kindness of heart, unselfishness, patience, and othei 

traits of character. 

9. Why did the South suffer more than the North ? In answer 

ing this question, consider for each section {a) its commerc( 
and the effect of the war upon it, {b) its manufactures, {c , 
army drafts upon its population, (d) the destruction of it 
property, etc., etc. 

10. In what cases only did the North suffer from the presence 

hostile armies ? 

11. Read Longffllow's poem, T/ie Cumberland. Justify from his 

tory the various statements and descriptive passages in th 
poem. 

12. Tell about any poems of merit that are based on incidents an' 

experiences of the war. 

13. Many southerners who loved the Union went with their state 

as they seceded. Explain this. 

14. What is it to draft men for an army ? On what principle ma 

a draft be justified ? Why was the drafting of men to sei \ 
in the Federal army unpopular? What evidences of t!i 
unpopularity were there 1 



:h. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 439 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

An excellent work to consult for a popular, and at the same 
dme trustworthy, story of the Civil War is Battles and Leaders 
jf the Civil War, published by the Century Company, New York, 
tts accounts of the great campaigns and battles of the war are 
contributed largely by officers, both Federal and Confederate, who 
;ook part in them, many of these officers having been in chief 
command of the forces engaged. Its numerous illustrations save 
'or us much of the life and spirit of those thrilling times, and 
preatly enhance, particularly for young people, the interest of the 
•ecord. For schools that find it inexpedient to obtain the origi- 
lal work in four volumes, there is an illustrated abridgment which 
5 less expensive. The following topics, contributed by the emi- 
lent authorities whose names are attached, will give some idea 

f the wealth and value of the material at the disposal of those 
vho would know in greater detail the story of the war, and are ad- 
airable for collateral reading: 

1. The first battle of Bull Run, by General G. T. Beauregard. 

2. The capture of Fort Donelson, by General Lew Wallace. 

3. The battle of Shiloh, by General U. S. Grant. 

4. The building of the Monitor, by Captain John Ericsson. 

5. The first fight of ironclads, by Colonel John T. Wood. 

6. The opening of the lower Mississippi, by Admiral D. D. 
Porter. 

7. McClellan organizing the grand army, by Philippe, Comte 
de Paris. 

8. The peninsular campaign, by General George B. McClellan. 

9. Manassas to Seven Pines, by General Joseph E. Johnston. 

10. Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah, by General John D. 
Imboden. 

11. The seven days' fighting, by Generals Fitz John Porter, 
Daniel H. Hill, W. B. Franklin, James Longstreet, and 
others. 

12. Lee's invasion of Maryland, by General George B. McClellan. 

13. Gettysburg, by Generals James Longstreet, Henrj- J. Hunt, 
and others. 

14. The Vicksburg campaign, by General U. S. Grant. 

15. Chattanooga, by General U. S. Grant. 

16. The Wilderness campaign, by General U. S. Grant. 

17. The grand strategy of the last year, by General W. T. Sher- 
man. 



440 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV., 

18. The struggle for Atlanta, by General O. O. Howard. 

19. The defense of Atlanta, by General John B. Hood. 

20. Up and down the Shenandoah, by Generals John D. Im- 

boden, Franz Sigel, Jubal A. Early, Wesley Merritt, and 
others. 

21. Cruise and combats of the Alabama, by Captain John M. 

Kell. 

22. The duel between the Alabama and Kearsarge, by John M. 

Browne. 

23. Sherman's march through the Confederacy, by Generals O. " 

O. Howard, Henry W. Slocum, Wade Hampton, and 
others. 

24. The fall of Richmond, by General Horace Porter. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

RECENT EVENTS. 1865- 1905. 

3flol)n0on'sf 0untints;tration, 

Republican : l86^-l86g. 

156. Cost of the War. At the time of Lee's surren- 
der, the Federal government had more than a million 
men under arms ; in less than six months they had all 
gone home to their families and their business, except 
the little nucleus of 50,000 men constituting our regular 
army.^ No shameful executions for treason were allowed 
to sully the glorious triumph of the United States. The 
captured Confederate prisoners were set free on parole, 
— about 175,000 in all. The war had proved that our 
Federal Union is indestructible, and it had rid it of the 
curse of slavery. This doubly glorious result had cost 
the country perhaps a million lives, besides wealth 
difficult to estimate, and it left a national debt of nearly 
three thousand million dollars, besides something in- 
finitely worse, a depreciated paper currency. 

157. The Era of Reconstruction. The assassin's pis- 
tol deprived the southerners of their kindest and most 
powerful friend. President Johnson's views about re- 
constructing the Union seem to have been much like 
Lincoln's, but Johnson was wanting in tact and discre- 
tion and had little influence with Congress. 

* The regular army afterward was reduced to 25,000 men, which had 
been its old number before the war. 



442 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVL 

Loyal state governments had been formed in Tennes 
see, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Virginia. Johnson recog- 
nized them, and authorized the other states to call con- 
ventions to form loyal governments. A thirteenth 
Thethir- amendment had just been added to the Con- 
teenth stitution, abolishing slavery wherever it still 

amend- , 

ment, existed throughout the Union. Johnson s state 

conventions ratified this amendment, repealed 
the ordinances of secession, and repudiated the Con- 
federate war debt. Then, according to his view of the 
case, the seceded states were entitled to be recognized 
as states in the Union with full powers. 

Congress, however, thought that further guarantees 
were necessary. It created the Freedmen's Bureau, for 
Further the protcctiou of emancipated slaves and also 
guarantees. q£ ^^^^ whites. It passcd a Civil Rights bill, i 
guaranteeing to negroes rights of citizenship. It de- 
manded that every candidate for office in the southern 
states must be able to swear that he had not taken part 
in secession; this was called the "ironclad oath." A 
fourteenth amendment was proposed, the effect of which 
would be to deprive any state of representation for its 
negro population unless its negroes should be allowed to 
vote. 

Under such conditions, eight of the eleven states — 
all except Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas — were " re- 
constructed " and allowed to resume their places in the 
Union. The governments formed in these eight states 
were neither satisfactory to their people nor likely to 
endure. The ironclad oath kept nearly all respectable 
people out of office, since nearly all such had taken part 
in the war, and a swarm of greedy northern adventurers, 
known as " carpet-baggers," settled down upon the 
southern states and set up governments supported 



§157- 



RECENT EVENTS. 



443 



largely by negro votes. To preserve order, a small 
Federal force was still maintained, and the unpopular 
carpet-bag governments looked to it for protection. 

Nearly all the measures of Congress were passed over 
the president's veto, and feelings grew so bit- 
ter that a Tenure of Office bill was passed, for- mentof the 
bidding the president to remove any civil office ^'^^*' 
holder without the consent of the Senate. Infraction 
of this law by the presi- 
dent was to be a high 
misdemeanor. In spite 
of this, the angry presi- 
dent undertook to defy 
the Senate by removing 
Edwin Stanton, secre- 
tary of war, whom he es- 
pecially disliked. Then 
the House of Represent- 
atives impeached the 
president before the Sen- 
ate for high crimes and 
misdemeanors. If found 
guilty, he would be incapable of holding office, and 
would therefore cease to be president ; and in that case, 
Benjamin Wade, president of the Senate, would have 
taken his place. Chief Justice Chase presided over the 
trial, and a two thirds vote was necessary for conviction. 
When the vote was taken, May i6, 1868, it stood 35 for 
conviction and 19 for acquittal. The president was 
therefore saved by one vote. Of those who voted for 
acquittal, seven were Republicans. 

During our Civil War, a French army had been sent 
to Mexico by Napoleon III., regardless of our protests, 

1 From Savage's Life of Andrew Johnson. 




ANDREW JOHNSON.l 



444 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVL 

and an imperial government had been set up there, with 
Maximilian, one of the Austrian archdukes, for 

The 

French in empcror. After our war was ended, our gov- 
ernment said things to Napoleon III. which 
caused him to withdraw his troops. Then the unfortu- 
nate Maximilian was soon dethroned, and in June, 1867, 
he was shot. 

In the year 1866 permanent telegraphic communica* 
tion between Europe and America was established by 
a submerged cable stretching from Ireland to 
cable; Newfoundland. In October, 1867, the vast 

territory of Alaska — valuable for furs, fish- 
eries, timber, and, to some extent, for metals — was 
bought from Russia for about ;^ 7,000,000. 

Next year the Republicans nominated General Grant 
for President, and the Democrats nominated 

The elec- 

tion of Horatio Seymour, who had been governor of 
New York. All the states voted except Vir* 
ginia, Mississippi, and Texas. Seymour had 80 electoral 
votes, Grant had 214, and was elected. 



Grant's? i]5timinifi;tration0. 

Republican : 186^18^7. 

158. The Progress of the Country. The census re- 
ports of 1870 showed that, in spite of the war, the coun- 
try had been rapidly increasing in population and wealth. 
The population had reached 38,000,000 (not much more 
than half of the number in 1895), and manufactures had 
doubled in value since the election of Lincoln. The 
year 1869 saw the completion of the Union Pacific rail- 
road, linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans with a line 
of continuous rail, so that President Grant might have 
travelled from New York to San Francisco in just the 



§§ i58» '59- 



RECENT EVENTS. 



445 



same time (one week) that it took President Washington 
to travel from New York to Boston. 

After the Civil War, there was a general improvement 
in educational methods and in schools. Americans be- 
came more interested in foreign countries ; there was 
more travelling; more and better books were read. 
More attention was paid to music and the fine arts. 
Literature reached a higher level than ever. Longfel 
low, Whittier, Emerson, and Holmes were at our great 
the height of their powers. James Russell ^"'^'^^• 
Lowell, whose Biglow Papers, written during the Mexi- 
can War and the Civil 
War, are probably the 
greatest political poems 
in existence, now filled 
the measure of his fame 
by writing series after 
series of masterly essays 
in criticism. Among 
American writers of his- 
tory, the two greatest 
names are John Lothrop 
Motley and Francis Park- 
man. Of Motley's noble 
work on the Netherlands, the first volumes were pub- 
lished in the times of President Buchanan, the last ap- 
peared in the times of President Grant ; and, in these 
latter days, Parkman was in the full tide of work upon 
his great history of France and England in North Amer- 
ica, two volumes of which had lately appeared. 

159. The Treaty of Washington. The most impor- 
tant political event of Grant's administration was the 
settlement of the difficulties which had grown out of 
the remissness of Great Britain in allowing Confederate 




JAMES RUSSELL LOWELU 



446 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

cruisers to sail from her ports. The United States 
claimed damages, and, as the Alabama was the most 
famous of the cruisers, these claims for damages were 
often known as the "Alabama claims." The feeling on 
the subject was at times almost warlike. But by a 
treaty arranged at Washington, Great Britain and the 




FRANCIS PARKMAN 



JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY. 



The Ala- 
bama 
claims. 



United States agreed to submit the matter to arbitra- 
tion. An impartial board of arbitrators met at 
Geneva, in Switzerland, and, after hearing the 
case, awarded ^15,500,000 damages to the 
United States. At the same time, a question relating 
to the boundary between the United States and British 
Columbia was referred to the Emperor of Germany and 
settled by him. Thus did England and America set 
the world an example, which it is to be hoped will be 
extensively followed, of settling grave international dis- 
putes without fighting. 

Another event of this time, which circumstances 
might invest with international importance, was the 



§§ 159, i6o. RECENT EVENTS. 447 

acknowledgment, by Germany and England, of the right 
of expatriation ; that is, the right of a citizen Expatria- 
to abandon his own country and become a citi- ^^o"- 
zen of another. It was formerly held that this could 
not be done ; it was held, for instance, that an English- 
man might dwell for years in the United States, with- 
out any intention of returning to England, and still he 
would owe allegiance to England. The British govern- 
ment had acted upon this theory in the Revolutionary 
War and the war of 1812, when it seized Englishmen 
found on board American ships. The question was 
sometimes important in the case of an emigrant from 
Germany to America returning to his fatherland for 
a visit. Was such a man a German or an American .'' 
Could a German government draft him for service in 
the German army .-' The United States government 
has always insisted upon the right of expatriation. In 
1868, a treaty was made with Germany, in which that 
nation acknowledged the right. Two years afterwards 
England admitted it, and the right of expatriation is 
coming to be generally established. 

160. The Fifteenth Amendment. In 1870 was 
adopted the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution, 
which provides that "the right of the citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged 
by the United States or any state on account of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude." This guaran- 
teed to all adult negroes the right of voting. 

The carpet-bag governments at the South, supported 
by Federal troops, were the cause of much 
trouble and ill-feeling. The southern people, bag gov. 
already impoverished by the combined afflic- 
tions of war, blockade, and paper currency, were now 
still further burdened with taxes assessed by negroes 



448 JfHE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVL 

and northern adventurers. Attempts to influence elec- 
tions illegally were frequent. Bands of armed men be- 
longing to an organization known as the "Ku Klux 
Klan" sought to intimidate negroes, and sometimes 
committed deeds of violence. On the other hand, boards 
of canvassers were appointed for determining the results 
of disputed elections by manipulating the figures in 
counting the votes. These were called " Returning 
Boards." There were several instances in which the 
peace of a state was threatened by the presence of two 
rival governors and two rival legislatures, each fulmi- 
nating against the other. But as by degrees the iron- 
clad oath was relaxed, and the better class of southern 
citizens came back into power, the condition of affairs 
improved.^ 

161. The Election of 1872. Since President Jack- 
son's time, the number of officers in the civil service 
had enormously increased, and the abuses in- 

Civil ser- •' 

vice re- Separable from the spoils system had increased 
in even greater proportion. There now went 
up a cry for reform in the civil service, and the discon- 
tent, as is always the case, served to weaken the politi- 
cal party actually in power. In May, 1872, a body of 
"Liberal Republicans," favoring stringent civil service 
reform and the removal of Federal troops from the south, 
held a convention for nominating a candidate for the 
presidency. It was intended to present a candidate 
whom the Democrats could heartily support, and it was 
generally believed that the person would be Charles 
Francis Adams (son of President John Quincy Adams), 

1 On Christmas, l868, full amnesty was proclaimed for political offences 
connected with the secession of the southern states. In May, 1872, the 
Amnesty act removed political disability from all southerners except 
about 350 persons who had held high positions under the Confederacy. 



5§ i6i, 162. RECENT EVENTS. ^g 

who had won high distinction as minister to Great Bri- 
tain during the Civil War. But the convention nomi' 
nated Horace Greeley, founder and editor of the New 
York " Tribune." The Democrats had already so set 
their hearts upon an alliance with the Liberal Republi- 
cans that they accepted this nomination. But Greeley's 
life-long hostility to the Democrats gave to his appear- 
ance as their presidential candidate a ludicrous air. Id 
this election all the southern states took part. Of the 
366 electoral votes, Grant obtained 286, and was elected. 
Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast, and 
the 80 minority votes were scattered. 

162. The Panic of 1873, etc. Again, as in 1837, 
rapid westward growth and railroad building had de- 
i^eloped an excessive amount of speculation, which was 
followed by a commercial crisis with frequent and dis- 
astrous failures in business. The distress was greatly 
aggravated by the vicious paper currency, which had 
produced an extreme inflation of prices. In 1867, a 
barrel of flour in Boston cost $22.50, and a ton of hard 
:oal $14. At such times many people are apt to be 
baunted by a vague idea that more money is needed, — 
ivithout regard to its intrinsic value, — and so they try 
to cure the evils of inflation by more inflation. After 
the panic of 1873, a bill for swelling the volume of the 
:urrency by a further issue of paper passed both houses 
3f Congress, but President Grant vetoed it and thereby 
established a fresh claim upon the gratitude of the 
A.merican people. 

In spite of the paniC; the effects of which endured 
several years, the Centennial Exhibition, or World's 
Fair, at Philadelphia, in 1876, was a great success. The 
series of centennial anniversaries, beginning with the 
mniversary of Lexington, in 1875, deserve mention as 



450 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVl. 

the stimulus to a new and deeper general interest in 
the study of American history. 

The progress of westward expansion has always been 
attended by trouble with the native tribes. Under 
Indian Grant's presidency, there was a war with the 
wars. Modocs and another with the Sioux. It was 

in the latter war, in June, 1876, that the brave General 
Custer and his troops were encompassed by overwhelm* 
ing numbers of Indians, and not one escaped alive. 

In spite of such troubles, President Grant's general 
policy toward the red men was highly to the credit of 
his administration, and was quite in harmony with his 
humane and kindly nature. Remembering the admirable 
policy of William Penn, he entrusted the nomination 
of Indian agents to members of the Society of Friends, 
and the questions connected with the just treatment 
of Indians were set forth in such wise as to awaken 
general interest. The discussion led to the establish- 
ment of an Indian Rights Association, for protecting 
the red men. 

163. Some Scandals. During the presidential cam- 
paign of 1872, the Democrats brought charges of bribery 
Credit agaiust sundry members of Congress and hold- 

Mobiiier. q^s of high public officcs. The Credit Mo- 
bilier ^ was a corporation chartered by the state of 
Pennsylvania and reorganized in 1864 for the purpose 
of enabling the shareholders of the Union Pacific Rail- 
way, and other persons connected with them, to reap 
extraordinary profits. The accusation against the per- 
sons above mentioned was that they had accepted pres- 
ents of stock in. the Credit Mobilier in exchange for 
political influence in favor of the Union Pacific, An 

1 The name is French, and means credit on personal property. It was 
copied from the name of a corporation established in France in 1852. 



J§ i63, 164. RECENT EVENTS. 45 1 

investigation resulted in the formal censure of two mem 
bers of Congress. 

The salaries of public officers in the United States 
have always been very small as compared with the usage 
in other great nations. In March, 1873, Congress raised 
the salary of the president from ^25,000 to ^50,000, 
that of the chief justice from 1^8500 to ;$ 10,500, those 
of the vice-president, associate justices, cabinet officers, 
and speaker of the House of Representatives, from 
$8000 to ;^ 10,000, and those of senators and The Salary 
representatives from ^5000 to ;^7500. By Grab, 
another act. Congress made the change in the salaries 
of its own members date back to 1871. This last act, 
which was called the " Salary Grab," aroused such gen- 
eral indignation that it was repealed ; several members 
of Congress refused on principle to accept the back pay. 
The next year all the salaries were reduced to their 
former figures, except those of the president and justices. 

In the course of the year 1872 a combination of dis- 
tillers and revenue officers was formed in St. Louis, for 
the purpose of defrauding the government 
by keeping back part of the internal revenue whiskey 
tax on whiskey and other distilled liquors. In '"^' 
the course of the next two years, this nefarious business 
spread far and wide, with branches in several large 
cities. In 1875 the affair was brought to light, more 
than 200 persons were indicted, and it was proved that 
within the past year the stealings had amounted to nearly 

|2,000,000. 

164. Election of 1876. The Liberal Republicans 
were by this time still further alienated from the great 
body of the party, and the experience of 1872 led such 
persons to vote with the Democrats rather than try 
again the experiment of an independent nomination. 



452 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

This was made easier for them by the fact that the Dem- 
ocrats nominated a candidate whose name was identified 
with efforts toward reform, Samuel Jones Tilden, who 
had been governor of New York, The RepubHcans 
nominated Rutherford Birchard Hayes, of Ohio, ^ — an 
excellent choice. 

As the election returns first came in, there seemed 
to be no doubt that Tilden was elected. But in three 
of the southern states, carpet-bag governments still re- 
mained, and double returns were sent in, both for state 
officers and for presidential electors. These three states 
were South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. It was 
observed that if all three of these states should be 
counted as Republican, it would make the total vote for 
Hayes 185, against 184 for Tilden. The manager of 
the Republican canvass, Zachariah Chandler, claimed 
them all. The Democrats denied the claim. The ques- 
tion was hard to settle, because the Senate was Repub- 
lican and the House of Representatives Democratic, and, 
therefore, the two houses could not agree upon a method 
of counting the vote. In the case of each state sending 
double returns, it was necessary for the two houses to 
agree which return to accept, but on this they could 
never agree. There was a possibility of civil war in all 
this, and people grew anxious. 

Besides the three carpet-bag states, there was one 
northern state that sent in double returns. In one re- 
turn sent from Oregon the state's three votes were all 
Republican ; in the other return two were Republican 
and one Democratic. If the latter return were accepted 
it would make Tilden's vote 185, and Hayes's only 184 
even with all the three carpet-bag states. 

Congress decided that in counting the votes, each 
disputed case should be referred to an Electoral Com- 



i64, 165. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



453 



I mission, consisting of five senators, five representatives, 
iand five judges of the Supreme Court. There must be 
t an odd number, to avoid a tie. Care was taken to ap- 
: point seven Democrats and seven Repubhcans, while 
lit was supposed that the fifteenth would be a judge — 
David Davis, of Illinois — who was known to be very 
i independent of party. But it happened that Davis re- 
: signed, and the fifteenth place fell to a Republican judge. 
Thus every disputed case was referred to a tribunal con- 
sisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats; and 
every such case was decided by a strict party vote of 
eight to seven. Thus it appeared that Hayes had 185 
votes, and was elected. The final result was not de- 
clared until March 2, only two days before President 
Grant's term expired. 



J^areg'0 ^Dmtnt0tratton» 

Republican : 187/-18S1. 

165. Important Measures of Finance. One of the 

first acts of President Hayes was to withdraw all Fed 
eral troops from the 
South, whereupon the last 
carpet - bag governments 
immediately fell. The ad- 
ministration of President 
Hayes was eminently 
respectable. The chief 
events of the administra- 
tion were two : (i) In 
1878, the Republican Sen- 
ate and Democratic House 
agreed in passing the 
Bland Silver Bill, provid- rutherford birchard hayes 




454 "^"^ FEDERAL UNION Ch. XVI 

ing for the coinage of a silver dollar of 41 2| grains, 
^ . making it a legal tender for debts, and order- 

Specie pay- . 

ments re- ing such dollars to be coined at a rate not less 
than two millions, nor more than four millions, 
each month. This act was vetoed by President Hayes, 
and Congress, by a two thirds vote, passed it over the 
veto. (2) In 1879, t^^ government, after an interval of 
seventeen years, resumed specie payments ; gold sold at 
par, and coin came back into circulation. 

In 1877, public attention was called more forcibly 
than ever before to contests between workmen and their 
strikes and employers. Certain railroad companies, suffer- 
boycotts. ing from the long business depression since 
1873, lowered the wages of their men. Consequently 
the rrten stntck, or refused to work. Furthermore, some 
of the strikers tried to prevent their employers from 
hiring other men in their places, and to this end they 
threatened and persecuted other workmen who were 
ready to be hired. This sort of thing is called boycott- 
ing, from the name of one of its victims in Ireland, a 
Captain Boycott. In several of our large cities there 
were disturbances in 1877, connected with these at^ 
tempts at boycotting. The trouble was most serious in 
Pittsburgh, where there were bloody riots, with destruc- 
tion of more than ^3,000,000 worth of property. The 
riots were suppressed by troops, but they were only the 
first of a series which were from time to time to occur. 

Election of 1880. The Democrats nominated Gen- 
eral Hancock, mainly because of his brilliant record in| 
the Civil War. He obtained 155 electoral votes. The 
Republicans nominated General Garfield, who obtained 
214 votes, and was elected. The vice-president chosen 1 
with him- was Chester Alan Arthur, who had been col- 
lector of the port of New York 






5 i66. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



H 



455 



2Dt)e ^arfirli3.'£rtl)ur ^Dmtnifitration, 

Republican : 1881-1885. 

166. Civil Service Reform. The new administra- 
tion began with serious troubles regarding the disposal 
of the "offices." Both the senators from New York 
resigned their seats because the president would not 
submit to their dictation, especially in the appointment 
■of a collector for the port of New York. Congress had 





CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR. 



)een extremely reluctant to cooperate with any sincere 
ind efficient scheme of civil service reform. The new 
)resident was besieged with applicants for office. On 
he 2d of July, the country was startled by the news 
hat he had been shot while standing in the railway 
tation at Washington. The assassin was a . • . 

° . Assassina- 

vorthless wretch, who had failed to obtain tion of 
ome paltry office. For many weeks the presi- 
cnt lingered between life and death, and finally passed 
way on the 19th of September. 
The chief event of President Arthur's administration 



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§§ 166, 167- RECENT EVENTS. 457 

was the passage of an act for reforming the civil service. 
It empowered the president to order appointments to be 
made by competitive examination, and it pro- The act to 
vided for a permanent board of commissioners cwu^r**^^ 
to superintend and perfect such a system. The ^'c®- 
act, proposed by Senator Pendleton, of Ohio, a Demo- 
crat, was passed through Congress by majorities irre- 
spective of party, and was set in operation by the 
Republican president. 

167. Prosperity of the South. Industrial exhibi- 
tions at Atlanta in 1881, and at New Orleans in 1884, 
showed that the southern states had greatly gained in 
prosperity by the substitution of free labor for slave 
labor. Just before the Civil War the cotton crop was 
about 5,000,000 bales (averaging 450 lbs. weight) ; at 
the time of the New Orleans exhibition it had increased 
to 8,000,000 bales. This rate of increase was greater 
than the rate at which the colored population of the 
cotton-growing states had increased ; and this fact seems 
to prove that free negroes, working to earn a living, can 
raise more cotton than the same number of slaves. But 
this is not the whole story, for besides this increase of 
cotton, the southern states had come to raise vastly 
greater crops of wheat and Indian corn than before the 
war, besides an immense quantity of early fruits and 
vegetables for northern markets. There had been, 
moreover, a notable development of manufactures, and 
a considerable number of patents for new inventions 
had been issued to southerners, of whom some were 
negroes. While the general condition of the colored 
race was much improved, some individuals were grow- 
ing wealthy; there were a few instances of freedmen 
possessing as much as ^100,000. While slavery existed 
it was assumed by many people that free negroes could 



458 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI, 

not be induced to work for a living. Within twenty 
years after slavery had been abolished, it would probably 
have been difficult to find in all the South a person will- 
ing to see it restored.^ 

168. Election of 1884. The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland, who, as mayor of Buffalo, and as 
governor of New York, had been conspicuously identi- 
fied with measures of administrative reform. The Re- 
publicans nominated James Gillespie Blaine, who had 
three times been Speaker of the House of Representa 
tives, and enjoyed a very widespread personal popularity. 
A certain number of independent Republicans, however, 
believing that the cause of civil service reform would 
not prosper with Blaine, supported Cleveland. Such 
people were nicknamed " Mugwumps." ^ In the elec- 
tion Blaine received 182 electoral votes, Cleveland re- 
ceived 219, and was elected. 

CletielanD'0 iftrsft ;aDmint0tration. 

Democratic : l88j-l88g. 

169. The Tariff Question Prominent Again. The 
principal feature of these four years was the rise of the 

^ I have myself put the question to hundreds of southerners, and have 
never received any other reply than an emphatic expression of thankful- 
ness that the curse of slavery has been removed. 

2 The word Mugwump came from the extinct Massachusetts Indian 
language, as found in Eliot's Indian Bible, meaning "chief." It has 
always remained in local use along some parts of the coast of Massachu- 
setts and Connecticut, with the sense of " a person of importance," also 
" a person who has a high opinion of himself." In the Tippecanoe Log- 
Cabi?t Songster, a collection of campaign ballads published in 1840, a cer- 
tain Democratic candidate for county commissioner in Illinois was called 
" the great Mugwump." The word was used at least once that year in a 
newspaper editorial ; it appeared in 1872 in the Indianapolis Sentinel, j 
and again in the New York Sun, March 23, 1884. When applied to the 
Independents it happened to hit the popular lancy and caaie at. once into i 
general use. 



§§ i69, 170- 



RECENT EVENTS. 



459 



tariff question into prominence. After the great tariff 
contests in the times of Jackson and Tyler, the ques- 
tion was set at rest for a time by the enact- „ . 

■' _ V arious 

ment of the Walker tariff of 1 846, which was tariff meas- 
practically a tariff for revenue only. After 
eleven years, the tariff of 1857 made a few changes, 
chiefly in the direction of lower duties. On the eve of 
civil war, March 2, 1861, the Morrill tariff raised duties 
considerably, in the hope of obtaining more revenue. 
During the next three 
years, the tariff was re- 
peatedly revised, and 
duties were made higher 
and higher. No essential 
change occurred after the 
war, until, in Cleveland's 
first administration, it ap- 
peared that there was a 
surplus in the treasury, 
and that the tariff might 
be reduced without harm 
to the revenue. President 
Cleveland made this matter the subject of his message 
to Congress in 1887. A bill, known as the Mills Bill,i for 
reducing the duties on imports, was passed by the Demo- 
cratic House, but failed to pass the Republican Senate. 
170. Important Legislation. The two most impor- 
tant acts of this administration related to the regulation 
of the presidential succession and the counting of the 
electoral votes. There are few if any dangers Theeiec- 
to a nation greater than those that are liable torai count. 
to arise from a disputed succession to the chief execu- 
tive ofBce. Many bloody civil wars have sprung from 

^ From the name of its chief proposer, Roger Quarles Mills, of Texas. 




GROVER CLEVELAND. 



460 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

such a cause. Tn 1877 it was a serious anxiety from 
which we were relieved by the Electoral Commission ; 
but such an expedient might not succeed another time. 
The Electoral Count Act, of 1887, provides that each 
state shall finally determine any contest arising in it 
with regard to the result of a presidential election. Such 
determination must be made in accordance with some 
law enacted by the state before the election in question, 
and the decision must be reached at least six days before 
the day on which the electors meet. A decision reached 
in this way cannot be reversed by Congress. In the case 
of conflicting returns, Congress must count "the votes of 
the electors whose appointment shall have been certified 
by the Executive of the State, under the seal thereof." 

A somewhat easier but very important question re- 
lated to the succession to the presidency in case of the 
death or disability of both president and vice-president. 
An act of 1791 had provided that in such case the suc- 
cession should devolve first upon the president pro tem- 
pore of the Senate and then upon the speaker 
dentiaisuc- of the Housc of Representatives, until the dis- 

cession 

ability should be removed or a new election be 
held. But supposing a newly elected president to die 
and be succeeded by the vice-president before the as- 
sembling of the newly elected Congress ; then there 
would be no president pro tempore of the Senate and no 
speaker of the House of Representatives, and thus the 
death of one person might cause the presidency to lapse. 
Moreover, the presiding officers of the two houses of 
Congress might be members of the party defeated in 
the last presidential election ; indeed, this is often the 
case. Sound policy and fair dealing require that a vie-' 
torious party shall not be turned out because of the 
death of the president and vice-president. Accordingly 



5170. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



461 




'^^^..:.r'-7. 



STATUE OF LIBERTY.l 

an act of 1886 provided that in such an event the suc- 
cession should devolve upon the members of the cabinet 
in the following order : secretary of state, secretary of 

^ The colossal statue of " Liberty enlightening the world," which stands 
on a small island in the harbor of New York, was finished and dedicated 
in 1886. It was presented to the United States by France in commemo- 
ration of the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. 
It was designed by Auguste Bartholdi. The statue, made of copper and 
iron, is 151 feet in height to the top of the torch ; and it stands upon a 
granite pedestal 155 feet high. By a stairway inside the figure one can 
ascend to the head, the interior of which is a room capable of holding 
forty persons. At night, when the torch is lighted by electricity, it makes 
a very effective lighthouse. 



462 THE FEDERAL UNION, 



Ch XVI. 



the treasury, secretary of war, attorney-general, post- 
master-general, secretary of the navy, secretary of the 
interior. This would seem to be ample provision against 
a lapse. 

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was especially 
designed to prevent railroads passing through 
Commerce scvcral statcs from making unfair discrimina- 
tions in charges for freight. The abuse of free 
passes was also prohibited. A commission, consisting 
of five persons, was established to superintend the exe- 
cution of this law. 

The first treaty between the United States and China 
was negotiated in 1844 by Caleb Cushing. It opened five 
Chinese sea-ports to American trade, and provided for 
the protection of Americans in China and their property. 
In 1868 a treaty was negotiated by Anson Burlingame, 
in which China for the first time officially recognized 
the principles of international law that had grown up 
among western nations. Among the provisions of this 
treaty was one in which the United States promised 
that "the subjects of China shall enjoy the same privi- 
leges, immunities and exemptions in respect to travel 
and residence as may be enjoyed by the citizens and 
subjects of the most favored nation ; " in other words 
Chinamen were to be allowed to come and stay 

Chinese • i r-. • ^ 

immigra- in the United States on just the same terms 
as Irishmen or Germans. By 1880 there were 
about 100,000 Chinese dwelling in the United States, 
mostly on the Pacific coast, where they were regarded 
with strong disfavor. Chinese laborers worked for lowei 
wages than white laborers, and therefore tended to sup- 
plant them. It was furthermore observed that there 
was no likelihood of their ever becoming American citi- 
zens and forming a part of one and the same political 



§§170-172. RECENT EVENTS. 463 

community with their white neighbors. A bill for re- 
stricting Chinese immigration had already, in 1879, been 
passed by Congress, but was vetoed by President Hayes. 
In 1880 an agreement was made with the Chinese gov- 
ernment by which immigration into the United States 
was partially restricted. A new treaty was to have been 
made, but China was slow in ratifying it, and in 1888 a 
bill prohibiting the immigration of Chinamen was passed 
by Congress and signed by President Cleveland. Some 
persons held that this act was invalid, as incompatible 
with the treaty of 1 868 ; but the Supreme Court laid 
down the principle that the right to keep foreigners out 
of the country is an attribute of sovereignty which no 
treaty can surrender. 

171. Election of 1888. The Democrats nominated 
Cleveland, who received 168 electoral votes. The Re- 
publicans nominated Benjamin Harrison (grandson of 
the former President Harrison), who received 233 votes, 
and was elected. 

J^arrigon'0 HDmtntsftratton* 

Republicaji : l88g-l8g3. 

172. Principal Events. The administration of Presi- 
dent Harrison witnessed the admission of six new states 
to the Union, viz., the two Dakotas, Wyoming, Montana, 
Idaho, and Washington. The number of stars in the 
American flag was thus raised to forty-four. 

Legislation in Congress related principally to cur- 
rency and the tariff. Upon the currency question each 
party was divided within itself. The end reached was 
the passage of the Sherman Act of 1890, modi- sherman 
fying the Bland Bill of 1878, in so far as to Act. 
make the purchase of not less than 4^- million ounces of 



464 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 



silver bullion each month compulsory. Treasury notes 
were to be issued in payment for this bullion, and these 
notes, which were made a legal tender, were to be re- 
deemable in coin on demand. 

The McKinley tariff of 1890 increased the duties on 
some important articles, while reducing or abolishing 
McKinley the dutics ou othcrs. At the same time great 
Reci^ro- promincucc was given to the principle of reci- 
city- procity. It was provided that certain duties 

which either this or previous tariffs had wholly or par- 
tially abolished, such as those on tea, coffee, sugar, 

molasses, and hides, might 
be revived by the presi- 
dent against any countries 
which should impose un- 
fair duties upon any agri- 
cultural products of the 
United States. The occa- 
sion for making use of this 
provision was for the presi- 
dent himself to determine. 
This led, in the course of 
1 891 and 1892, to treaties 
of reciprocity with Spain 
and Great Britain (for their possessions in the West 
Indies), also with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with 
Brazil, and with several Spanish American republics. 

In the winter of 1889-90 there was assembled at 
Washington a congress of delegates from the United 
States, Hayti, Brazil, and fourteen independent Spanish 
„ , . American states, for the consideration of ques- 

Pan-Amen- _ _ ' 7 

can Con- tious relating to the improvement of business 

relations between all American countries. 

This was called the Pan-American Congress.^ Its most 

* The Greek word Pan means All. Such a meeting was attempted at 




BENJAMIN HARRISON. 



( I7Z RECENT EVENTS. 465 

important step was recommending the permanent adop- 
tion of arbitration for the settlement of all disputes that 
might arise between any nations of North and South 
America. 

It was not long after the Pan-American Congress 
that trouble threatened to break out between the United 
States and Chili. In the course of a brief civil war in 
the latter country there was a riot in the streets of Val- 
paraiso, in which two sailors from a United States war 
ship were killed and others were maltreated. After 
some exchange of words between the two governments, 
the affair was amicably settled. 

The absence of any law for protecting foreign authors 
against the piracy of their writings had long been re- 
marked as a grave defect in the Federal legislation of 
the United States. Without such a law the , 

Interna- 

book of any English author, or the translation tionai 
of any book written in a foreign language, "p^"^ 
might be printed and sold in this country without pay- 
ing anything to the author. Many of our leading pub- 
lishers — he, it said to their credit — were led by a sense 
of honor to pay the foreign author the customary roy- 
alty ; in this there was constant risk, since nothing but 
the "courtesy of the trade" prevented others from pub- 
lishing cheap editions of the same book ; the state of 
things was such as to favor dishonest and unscrupulous 
persons at the expense of the author and the honest 
publisher. To remedy these evils, the International 
Copyright Act of 1891 gives to foreign authors, under 
certain conditions, the benefit of copyright in the United 
States. 
A political reform from which excellent results have 

Panama in 1825, but the attendance was very small, and nothing came 
Df it. 



466 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVL 



already begun to flow is the adoption by many states 
Ballot °^ ^^^ Australian ballot-system, for the pur-| 
Reform. pose of checking intimidation and bribery at} 
elections. The system, so called because it was first 
perfected by our English-speaking cousins in Australia, 




VIEW IN PACIFIC AVENUE, TACOMA.l 



secures complete secrecy of voting. Before the election 
of 1892, the Australian ballot, or some modification of 
it, had been adopted by thirty-seven states. 

173. Election of 1892. A new party, called the 

i I have given several views in New York, Boston, Chicago, and other 
cities, as they looked long ago, or at the time of their beginnings. By 
way of contrast, I here give this view of a street in Tacoma, the youngest 
of our important cities. Nothing could better illustrate the extraordinary 
rapidity with which some of our new cities spring np. In the centennial 
year, 1876, Tacoma consisted of a saw-mill and huts giving shelter to 
about 300 persons. When I first visited the place, in 1887, the popula- 
tion was said to be 9,000, and it was already calling itself the " City of 
Destiny." The census of 1890 showed a population of 36,000; and it 
was in 1895 more than 50,000. The view is from a photograph taken in 
1892. 



§§ 173, 174- RECENT EVENTS. a^j 

"People's Party" or "Populists," nominated James 
Weaver for the Presidency, and he received 22 electoral 
votes, none of them from states further east than Kan- 
sas. The Republicans nominated Harrison, who re- 
ceived 145 electoral. votes. The Democrats nominated 
Cleveland, who received 277 votes, and was elected. In 
the newly elected House of Representatives there was a 
large Democratic majority, and the same party secured 
1 slight majority in the Senate, Thus, for the first time 
since the Civil War, the government of the United 
States was Democratic in all three of its branches. 

Clcbelanyg ^rconD BDminisftration. 

Detnocratic : l8gj-l8gy. 

174. Principal Events, During the preceding ad- 
jTiinistration the surplus in the United States treasury 
lad been rapidly diminished. At the beginning of 1893 
he gold reserve had reached so low a point that some 
jersons began to fear that the treasury might soon be 
)bliged to suspend gold payments. There was abun- 
lance of silver in the treasury, but the value of currency 
nlver had been for several years declining until ^^^ tariff, 
he gold value of a silver dollar was scarcely fifty cents, 
iit'et a silver dollar was by act of Congress a legal tender 
or its full nominal value of one hundred cents. There 
vas a fear that if the treasury should suspend its gold 
)ayments, business transactions would be shifted to a 
'ilvcr basis, just as in the Civil War they were shifted 
a basis of paper notes. The inevitable result of such 
L change would be an inflation of prices and a wide- 
ipread financial disturbance. Under these circumstances 
,he compulsory purchase of silver by the government 
yas a source of great danger. A disastrous commercial 



468 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

depression, attributed chiefly to the above causes, begai 
early in 1893, and led President Cleveland to summo] 
an extra session cf Congress, in which that portion o 
the Sherman Act of 1890 relating to the compulsor 
purchase of silver was repealed. In the next regula 
session, the chief business was the remodelling of th( 
tariff. The Wilson tariff, which was finally adopted, re 
tained the principle of protection, while it reduced th( 
duties upon many articles, and in particular put woo 
upon the free list. The president, whose views it fel 
short of meeting, did not sign the bill, but, believing i 
preferable to the McKinley tariff, he allowed it to be 
come law without his signature.-' 

The catching of seals in Bering Sea is a very impor 
tant branch of industry, and it has been pursued by s( 
many people and with so much avidity as to excite fear; 
that the whole race of seals there may be destroyed 
. The United States prescribes a limit to th( 
Sea con- number that the Alaska Commercial Company 

t rovers v« 

may catch. But since 1886 many Canadiar 
vessels have entered these waters and the destruction 0; 
seals has greatly increased. In 1891, these facts affordec 
the occasion for a dispute between the United States 
and Great Britain. Our Government practically claimec 
jurisdiction over Bering Sea, and began seizing Cana- 
dian vessels that were catching seals there. This led 
to a protest from Great Britain, and presently the ques- 
tion was submitted to arbitration. Some very curious 
points of international law were involved. In 1893, the 
arbitrators rejected the claim of the United States to 
sole jurisdiction over the seals in Bering Sea, but they 
laid down for the protection of those animals a set ot 

^ See the Constitution of the United States, article I., section viL . 
clause 2. 



i j 174- RECENT EVENTS. 469 

I rules which British and American seamen are bound 
i to obey. This decision once more illustrates the value 
t and efficacy of arbitration in international disputes. 

r > The outbreaks of striking and boycotting, which had 
li begun on a large scale in 1877 (§ 165), were continued 

II from time to time. Among the most notable ^ ., 

'^ Strikes 

It disturbances of this sort were those of Chi- and boy- 

l cago and St. Louis in 1886, and of Homestead, 

) oear Pittsburgh, in 1892. Chicago was the scene of an- 

c other outbreak in 1894, which was chiefly due to the 

general depression of business. The manufacture of 

\k Pullman cars was for some time kept up at a loss until 

:he company declared itself obliged to reduce the wages 

3f its workmen. This led to a strike, which developed 

nto riots, with destruction of property. There was an 

ittempt to prevent the movement of trains, and this, as 

c interfering with the transmission of the mail, brought 

t: :he affair within the purview of the United States 

government, A proclamation from President Cleveland 

- made it clear that the government would not allow its 

ordinary functions to be suspended for the benefit of a 

Doycott, and presently the disturbances came to an end. 

The admission of Utah to the Union had long been 

lelayed on account of the existence of polygamy among 

:he Mormons in that territory. In 1882, Con- 

, , , r , • Utah. 

irtss had passed an act for the suppression 
)f polygamy, and under this act more than a thousand 
Mormons were convicted and sent to prison. The 
isual penalty was a fine of $300, and imprisonment for 
iix months. In 1887, Congress passed another act dis- 
ncorporating the Mormon church and confiscating the 
greater part of its immense wealth. Congress also dis- 
ncorporated the Emigration Company, which managed 
;he business of bringing in Mormon converts from 



4/0 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

abroad. As a consequence of these vigorous measures,: 
the Mormon church in 1890 officially forbade polygamous! 
marriages. This and other evidences of the cessationj 
of the evil were held to have removed the chief objection 
to the admission of Utah as the forty-fifth state in the 
Union, and a bill to that effect was passed in December, 
1893. The state was admitted in January, 1896. 

175. Election of 1896. At the close of Cleveland's 
second administration, as at its beginning, the most im- 
portant question before the country related to the cur- 
rency. The financial depression continued, and among 
its various causes one was the general feeling of un- 
certainty as to the future of the circulating medium. 

The Republicans held their national convention at St. 
Louis, in June, 1 896, and declared themselves " opposed 
to the free coinage of silver except by international 
agreement with the leading commercial nations of the 
world." They nominated as their candidate for the 
presidency William McKinley, of Ohio, well known as 
author or sponsor of the McKinley tariff of 1890. 

The Democrats held their national convention at Chi- 
cago, in July, and adopted a platform demanding "the 
free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the 
present legal ratio of 16 to i without waiting for the aid 
or consent of any other nation." Another clause de- 
nounced the United States government for " arbitrary 
interference" in suppressing local insurrections; which 
was understood to refer to the Chicago riots of 1894. 
The Democratic candidate for the presidency was Wil- 
liam Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska. Mr. Bryan received 
also the nomination of the People's party, or Populists. 

A minority of the Democrats, who disapproved of the 
course of their party at Chicago, held a convention at 
Indianapolis, in September, and drew up the platform of 



i 



§§ 175, 176. RECENT EVENTS. 4/1 

the "National Democrats." With regard to the princi- 
pal question at issue, the platform says, " We insist upon 
the maintenance of the gold standard and of the parity 
therewith of every dollar issued by the government, and 
are firmly opposed to the free and unlimited coinage of 
silver and to the compulsory purchase of silver bullion." 
The National Democrats nominated for the presidency 
John M. Palmer, of Illinois, who had been a distinguished 
Union general in the Civil War, and for the vice-presi 
dency Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, who had been 
an eminent Confederate general. 

The National Democrats did not expect to do more, 
in the election of 1896, than to maintain an organization 
which might be of service in the future. They obtained 
no electoral votes. Bryan received 176, while McKin- 
ley received 271, and was elected. The Senate, after 
the new elections, contained 46 Republicans and 34 
Democrats, with 5 who called themselves Populists, 3 
Independents, and 2 Silver Men. The new House of 
Representatives contained 202 Republicans and 130 
Democrats, with 21 Populists, i Fusionist, and 3 Silver 
Men. Thus the government of the United States was 
now once more Republican in all three of its branches., 

^tMnW& ^Dmint0tration« 

Republicaii : iSgj-lgOI. 

VJQ. important Events. The general effect of the 
election of 1896 was to assure people that no immediate 
action would be taken in the direction of a free and un- 
restricted coinage of silver. Down to the beginning of 
1898 there had been no legislation decisively assuring the 
stability of the circulathig medium. Other business took 



472 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI 




WILLIAM MCKINLEY. 



precedence. A new tariff bill was passed in 1897, com' 
monly known as the Dingley tariff, the general effect oj 
which was to increase the duties on imports. 

One of the chief causes of the "hard times " had beer 

the extremely low price 01 
wheat. In 1894, the crop ol 
wheat all over the world was 
enormous ; more wheat was 
raised than was needed, and 
Wheat the price fell to about 
crops. ^^ cents per bushel. 
Many farmers, therefore, whc 
relied upon their sales oi 
wheat for paying their debts 
and buying sundry necessai 
ries of life, were disappointed 
and distressed. But in 1897 
it happened that there was a deficient wheat crop in 
other countries, so that there sprang up a brisk foreign 
demand for American wheat ; and this circumstance did 
much to relieve the hard times. 

The boundary line between Venezuela and British 
Guiana had never been satisfactorily adjusted, and in 
1895 certain territorial claims of Great Britain were; 
made the occasion of a remonstrance by President Cleve- 
land. The United States claimed the right to interfere, 
on the ground that any territorial increase of British^ 
Guiana at the expense of Venezuelan territory would be 
an infraction of the Monroe doctrine (§ 1 17). The affair 
was amicably arranged, and the question between Great 
Arbitration Britain and Venezuela was referred to arbitra- 
Treaty. ^j^j^^ This affair suggested the advisableness 
of having a permanent international court of arbitration 
for the purpose of adjusting any matters of dispute that' 



§§ 1/6, 177- RECENT EVENTS. 4/3 

might arise between the United States and Great Britain. 
After some correspondence between the two governments 
a treaty was drawn up, but in May, 1897, it failed to be 
ratified by the United States Senate. 

177. The War with Spain. In Cuba for more than 
half a centuiy there had been much discontent with the 
; Spanish government. In 1868 the Cubans rose in rebel- 
; lion, and there was war for ten years, at the end of which 
time the Spaniards promised that there should ci^^^ 
be a general reform of abuses, and the Cubans '■eLiei'i""^. 
desisted from fighting. But as year after year passed by 
without the iM'omised reforms, the Cubans grew impa- 
tient, and in February, 1895, war broke out again. The 
Cubans proclaimed their island independent of Spain, 
and elected a government of their own. At the beginning 
of 1898, in spite of extraordinary efforts in raising troops 
land money, Spain had accomplished nothing toward sup- 
pressmg the rebellion. The year opened with important 
questions confronting President McKinley's administra- 
tion as to the rights and duties of the United States 
toward the belligerents in a conflict carried on so near 
to our own doors. 

It soon began to appear that it was the duty of the 
United States to interfere in the struggle. Spanish 
From the beginning the conduct of General "ueities. 
VVeyler, the Spanish military governor of the island, 
lad been marked by extreme harshness and cruelty. 
iWounded men and unresisting prisoners were slaugh- 
:ered on the battlefield after fighting had ceased, peace- 
ul citizens were murdered while at their work, home- 
;teads were burned, women and children turned out of 
loors to starve. The climax of atrocity was reached in 
vhat was known as "concentration." Thousands of 
:)easants, with their families, were driven from their 



474 '^'^^ FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. i 

homes and herded on the outskirts of the large towns 
on the coast, where they died of malarial fever and 
starvation. Early in 1898 it was estimated that not 
less than half a million persons had thus miserably per- 
ished. 

It was high time that this sort of thing should be 
stopped. The Spanish government felt obliged to recall 
Weyler, and put General Blanco in his place ; but the 
situation was only partially amended, and it was clear' 
that Spain had proved herself unfit to rule over Cuba. 
On February 15, while negotiations relating to these 
Negotia- troubles were going on between Madrid and 
tions. Washington, the American battleship Maine, 

anchored in Havana harbor, was suddenly blown up, with 
the loss of more than 250 lives. A suspicion that this 
disaster might have been caused by treachery on the 
part of the Spaniards served to exasperate the feeling 
with which most Americans regarded their general be- 
havior. As the weeks passed, the conviction grew that 
the relief of Cuba from her ills was impossible without 
the departure of the Spaniards, and that Spain would 
never give up the island until compelled to do so. In 
April, Spain had come to realize that nothing but the 
intervention of the great European powers could save 
her from a war with the United States. The attitude of 
France, Austria, and Germany was hostile to the United 
States, and that of Russia was doubtful ; but Great Brit- 
ain showed such active sympathy with us as to make 
intervention an imprudent policy for the other powers. 
Spain was accordingly left to herself. 

Under such circumstances the course of events was 
rapid. On April 20 the United States sent its ultima- 
tum to Spain, — to give up Cuba at once and remove her 
military and naval forces from the island. As this de- 



§ 177- RECENT EVENTS. 4/5 

mand was refused, Congress declared war five days later. 
In response to President McKinley's first call, war 
125,000 volunteers were soon under arms, and declared, 
before the end of May the number had increased to 
more than 200,000, while the regular army was increased 
to 55,000. 

The first great event of the war occurred on the oppo- 
site side of the globe. The people of the Philippine 
Islands, which had been controlled by Spain since 1564,^ 
were in a state of rebellion against Spanish misrule, and 
a large Spanish fleet, under Admiral Montojo, was riding 
in the harbor of Manila, the principal city. When war 
was proclaimed, the Pacific squadron of the Dewey at 
United States, under Commodore Dewey, was ^^^ni^*- 
in Chinese waters ; on May i Dewey entered Manila 
harbor, and in a sharp fight destroyed the Spanish fleet 
and became master of the situation. For this bold and 
skilful exploit, in which not one American was killed, 
Dewey was made a rear-admiral. A force of 16,000 men 

, under General Merritt was presently sent to ensure our 
hold upon these islands. 

In May another powerful Spanish fleet, under Admiral 

, Cervera, was sent to the West Indies, and at cervera's 

i the end of the month it was found to be in sandago 
the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, where it had ^^ ^uba. 
been obliged to stop for coal. It was forthwith block- 

i aded in the harbor by the combined squadrons of Admi- 
ral Sampson and Commodore Schley, and preparations 
were made at once for sending troops to cooperate with 
the fleet in reducing Santiago. 

When it was known in Spain that one fleet had been 



I 



^ They were taken by Great Britain in 1762, but were restored to Spain 
in the following year. The people are chiefly Malays and Roman Cath- 
olics. 



476 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVL 

destroyed and another bottled up, there were riots and 
other alarming revolutionary s}Tnptoms, so that on June 
24 it was necessary to proclaim martial law in Madrid. 
On July I the American army in Cuba, under General 
Shafter, took by storm El Caney and San Juan, twc 
important outposts of Santiago. Next day the Spaniards 
made a gallant attempt to retake them, but were repulsed 
with heavy loss. These two days cost the Americans 
about 1,600 in killed and wounded. On July 3 Cervera's 
Its destruc- ^^^^ tried to escape from the harbor, but was 
*^°"- intercepted by the American fleet and de- 

stroyed. Shafter completed his investment of Santiago 
and demanded its surrender, which was refused. 

The annihilation of Cervera's squadron left the Amer- 
icans free to send a strong naval force across the Atlan- 
tic, to threaten the coasts of Spain. The only remaining 
Spanish fleet, under Admiral Camara, had been started 
by way of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea for the 
Philippine Islands ; but on July 5 it was recalled to defend 
the Spanish coast. Santiago continued to refuse to sur- 
render, except under conditions which President McKin- 
ley would not accept ; but on July 10 and 11 a vigorous 
bombardment vanquished the Spanish com- 

Surrender ^ • i i 

of Santi- maudcr s obstmacy, and three days later he 
^^°' surrendered the city and his army. 

Toward the end of July an American army, under 
General Miles, landed on the island of Porto Rico, where 
it was welcomed by the people, and had encountered no 
serious resistance when the government at ^ladrid sued 
for peace. President McKinley's terms were brief and 
End of the decisivc, admitting no other reply than a plain 
war. Yes or No. Spain must withdraw from Cuba 

and acknowledge it independent ; she must cede Porto 
Rico and the few remaining small Spanish Antilles to 



I 



§§ 177, 178. RECENT EVENTS. ^yy 

the United States, and must also cede one of the La- 
drone islands in the Pacific Ocean. Some further ques- 
tions were left open for negotiation, including the final 
disposition of the Philippines, and meanwhile Manila was 
to be occupied and held by the United States. Spain 
accepted these terms, and August 12, 1898, witnessed 
the cessation of hostilities. Thus the Spanish rule in 
the Western Hemisphere, which began in the days of 
Columbus, has come to an end. 

On the next day, before the news of this had reached 
the Philippine Islands, the city of Manila, after a brief 
bombardment, surrendered to Admiral Dewey and Gen- 
eral Merritt. Thus, curiously enough, the struggle ended 
where it began, in the Pacific Ocean. 

Commissioners appointed by Spain and the United 
States met at Paris October i, and the treaty (which gave 
the Philippines to the United States for a consideration 
of $20,000,000) was completed December 10. It was rat- 
ified by the United States Senate February 6, 1899. 

178. Other Important Events. In the course of this 
war the Hawaiian Islands, with the consent of Hawaiian 
their government, were annexed to the United inlands. 
States. 

The year 1898 is memorable for the union of Brooklyn 
and other suburban cities imder the same gov- Greater 
ernment with the city of New York. With its ^'ew York, 
total population of 3,437,202 souls,^ New York is now 
second only to London among the cities of the world. 

[Under the treaty of peace with Spain, the United 
States acquired Guam, one of the Ladrone Is- 
lands, lying in a direct line from San Francisco Tutuii'a, 
to the Philippines ; and by a tripartite agree- ^"'^ ^'"""^ 
ment with Great Britain and Germany in 1899, two of the 
Samoan Islands (Tutuila and Manua) were ceded to us. 
^ United States census of 1900. 



4/8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

The so-called "imperial" policy, to which the United 
States now seemed to be committing itself, was 

Imperialism. . . , • i i -^ 

opposed by many citizens, who considered it 
subversive of American ideals and entirely unauthorized 
by the Constitution. The " Expansionists," on the other 
hand, contended for a more liberal construction of the 
Constitution, holding that American ideals must change 
with the times. According to their view, it was now 
necessary for this country to take its full share in the 
politics and the commerce of the world. The chief 
struggle came over the Philippines, the opposition taking 
the ground that in assuming control of these islands the 
United States was encroaching upon the liberties of an 
alien people, while the Expansionists held that it was the 
duty of this country to extend to the Islanders the bene- 
fits of American civilization. Meanwhile, in February, 
1899, the Filipino leader, Aguinaldo, turned his forces 
in insurrection against the Americans. The 
pine insur?" wclght of opinion seemed to be in favor of re- 
taining the Islands, for a time at least, and in 
spite of a vigorous opposition at home, the pacification of 
the insurgents was actively prosecuted at considerable 
cost in lives and money. 

In 1900, while our troops were still occupied in the 
The troubles Philippines, the " Boxer " outrages upon . f or- 
m China. eigncrs in China led to the unprecedented alli- 
ance of the entire civilized world against the Chinese 
government. The foreign legations in Peking were be- 
sieged not only by the Boxers but by the Imperial Chi- 
nese troops also, and our government united with the 
other powers to send a strong expedition to their relief. 
In this expedition, which accomplished its purpose and 
put an end to the anti-foreign demonstrations, the Amer- 
ican forces took a prominent part. 



§§ 178, 179. »8o. RECENT EVENTS. 479 

Discoveries of gold in the Yukon district of Canada 
and Alaska led to an invasion of that region Alaskan gold 
in 1897 by hordes of fortune-seekers, and in <i'scovenes. 
1898-99 large deposits of gold were found at Cape Nome 
also, and elsewhere on the western coast of Alaska. 
These discoveries have added very appreciably to the 
value and importance of the territory. 

179. Election of 1900. The Republicans renomi- 
nated President McKinley, and he was elected, receiving 
292 electoral votes, while Mr. Bryan, who was again the 
nominee of the Democrats, had but 155. There were 
several other candidates in the field, but they received 
no electoral votes. Both branches of Congress remained 
strongly Republican. 

Republican : igoi-igo^. 

180. Principal Events. On the first of May, 190 1, 
the Pan-American Exposition was opened in Buffalo, to 
illustrate the progress and development of the Western 
Hemisphere during the nineteenth century. It remained 
open through November 2, and the total number of ad- 
missions recorded was more than eight million. 

On the 6th of September, while President McKinley 
was holding a public reception in the Temple of 
Music, at the Exposition, he was shot twice by tionof 
Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist of Polish descent. ^ '"^^' 
At first the wounds were not considered very danger- 
ous, but after a few days blood-poisoning set in, and on 
the r4th Mr. McKinley died. On the afternoon of the 
same day Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt, of New 
York, took the oath of office as President. 

President Roosevelt continued his predecessor's policy 



48o 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 



in regard to the Philippines. The insurrection came vir- 
tually to an end with the capture in March, 1901, of 
Aguinaklo, who issued a manifesto urging his 

Civil govern- ^,, . . 

mentinihe lollowcrs to acccpt the authority of the United 

Philippines. t.^ ... ... 

btates. t rom that time the military operations 
became chiefly confined to police duty against brigand- 
age, and civil government was established in the Islands 
in July, 1 90 1. 

After the war with Spain, Cuba remained tempora- 
rily in the hands 

The admin- ^ , _ . 

istrationof Of thC United 

Cuba. 

States, and its 
government was adminis- 
tered by our War Depart- 
ment until the adoption of 
a republican constitution 
by the Cubans in 1902. 
During this time Ameri- 
can methods as far as pos- 
sible were applied in the 
various branches of the 
government, Havana was 
put into good sanitary con- 
dition for the first time in its history, yellow fever being 
entirely eliminated from the city, and schools were organ- 
ized all over the island. 

The long-debated question of an Isthmian canal was 
settled in 1902 in favor of the Panama route, and in 
January, 1903, a treaty with Colombia was signed, secur- 
The Pan- i^g ^o the United States a lease of the ncces- 
ama Canal, sary territory. After much delay the Colom- 
bian Senate rejected this treaty, which had already been 
ratified by the Senate of the United States, and in its 
place proposed a less satisfactory agreement. Soon 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 



§ i8o. RECENT EVENTS. 48I 

afterward, in November, an entirely new turn was given 
to affairs by a declaration of independence on the part 
of the state of Panama. The new republic, having been 
formally recognized by the United States and France, 
at once opened negotiations for a canal treaty. These 
negotiations were carried through with but little delay, 
and the agreement went into effect February 26, 1904. 
The United States guaranteed the independence of the 
republic of Panama, and Panama granted to the United 
States " in perpetuity the use, occupation, and control " 
of a zone of land ten miles wide, across the isthmus. 
• Another event of international importance in the year 
1903 was the settlement of the boundary line between 
Alaska and the Dominion of Canada. This had been 
long in dispute. In January the two governments de- 
termined upon a commission to take evidence and hear 
(arguments bearing on the question ; three members of 
the commission were appointed by the Presi- 
dent and three by the British government. The Alaskan 
award was made in October, and confirmed ^°""'^ '"■>'• 
"the right of the United States to the control of a con- 
tinuous strip or border of the mainland shore, skirting 
all the tidewater inlets and sinuosities of the coast." 

The Fourth of July in the same year was made mem- 
orable by the completion of the Pacific cable, and the 
sending of the first message over it by President Roose- 
velt to Governor Taft of the Philippines. The progress 
that had been made in the development of telegraph 
facilities was well illustrated by the fact that another 
message sent by the President a little later made the cir- 
cuit of the world in twelve minutes. 

The centennial of the purchase of the Louisiana ter- 
ritory ^ was fitly celebrated by the Louisiana Purchase 
1 See above, p. 2S1. 



I 



482 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch.XVI. 

Exposition at St. Louis ; the dedication of the buildings 
took place April 30, 1903, and the exposition was open 
to the public from April 30, 1904, till December i, with 
a total attendance of nearly nineteen million. 

The first years of the twentieth century brought some 
serious labor troubles, of which the most important was 
the strike of the anthracite coal miners in Pennsylvania. 
This began May 14, 1902, and work was almost 
wholly suspended for five months. The price of 
coal advanced to a point never reached before, and the 
supply was so small that in many cities relief committees 
were organized to aid those who could not otherwise 
secure fuel. About 145,000 men and boys were idle. In 
October, 1902, President Roosevelt succeeded in gaining 
the consent of both operators and miners to submit the 
disputed points to an arbitration committee appointed by 
the President, and on the 21st of March, 1903, a decision 
was given in favor of the miners. J 

In July, 1904, there was a strike in the meat-packing |1 
establishments of Chicago that involved 45,000 workers, 
and the same month a strike of more than 24,000 op- 
eratives began in Fall River, Mass. ; the latter closed 
72 textile mills and continued till January, 1905, when a 
settlement was brought about mainly by the efforts of 
Governor Douglas. 

181. Election of 1904. President Roosevelt's popu- 
larity throughout the country made his nomination by 
the Republicans a foregone conclusion. The Democrats 
nominated Judge Alton B. Parker of New York, and for 
the first time since the Republican party was organized 
the presidential candidates of both the great parties were 
from the State of New York. The election gave Presi- 
dent Roosevelt 336 of the electoral votes, and Judge 
Parker only 140. jjl 



§ i82. RECENT EVENTS. 483 

182. Industrial Prosperity. The years following the 
reelection of President Roosevelt were years of great 
industrial prosperity. Prices were high on all classes of 
commodities, and every branch of industry was strained 
to keep up with the demand for goods. This great era 
of prosperity brought increases to the wage-earners in 
many directions, and in those directions where the in- 
creases were not equal to what was believed by the 
workers to be justified by the prosperous conditions, 
serious industrial strikes occurred. 

The policy of the National Administration was at the 
same time directed toward curbing the influence of cor- 
porations, and financial interests in the coun- 

' . . . Restraint 

try, to which the long period of prosperity had of Corpo- 
given great importance and power. Suits were 
brought by the national government against railroads 
and other large corporations for trying to discriminate 
in various ways against smaller manufacturers. At the 
same time, especially in New York State, attempts were 
made to investigate the financial transactions of the great 
insurance companies, which were considered to have 
been contrary to the course of action which they should 
have maintained as trustees of the funds of many indi- 
viduals who had invested their savings in these com- 
panies. In the case of several of the larger companies, 
where the charges were substantiated, there were notable 
':hanges in management. 

The industrial prosperity of this period and of the 
)revious years had resulted in the accumulation of tre- 
nendous fortunes, and these fortunes were to a limited 
extent returned to the people through the presentation 
)f magnificent sums of money for charitable and educa- 
ional purposes by some of the great millionaires of the 
;ountry. This period of prosperity was clouded by the 



484 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

fearful disaster in San Francisco, which in April, 1906, 

was largely destroyed by an earthquake fol- 

Francisco lowed by a very severe fire. The rest of the na- 

Disaster. . , ., ^ ti n i 

tion, however, contributed most liberally to the 
sufferers, and everything was done to prevent further 
suffering and loss of life than was actually occasioned 
by the disaster itself. 

183. Political Events, The war which had been 
waged most fiercely between Japan and Russia in Man- 
churia and on the neighboring seas, was brought to a 
close largely through the influence of President Roose- 
velt. He appealed to the conflicting powers for the 
appointment of a commission to consider terms of peace. 
^ This commission finished its work at Ports- 

1 reaty 

of Ports- mouth. New Hampshire, and on August 29, i 

mouth. . ^ , . ..,..{ 

1905, a satisfactory treaty closing hostilities j 
was signed between Japan and Russia. 

The Panama Canal had been authorized by Congress, 
but remained under discussion. A canal on the lock 
system was now decided upon, and a commission ap- 
pointed by the President to conduct the work. 

Progress ' -^ 

at In spite of many troubles, the work has been 

pushed forward, the President himself visiting 
the Canal Zone with a view to observing conditions which 
had been reported to be unsatisfactory, and which seemed 
to have been greatly exaggerated. 

During the administration of both McKinley and 
Roosevelt much had been done to accentuate the im- 
Dipiomatic portancc of the United States among the great 
Successes, powers of the world. This activity was chiefly 
the work of John Hay, Secretary of State, a man of 
great ability and foresight. Hay died in July, 1905, 
and was succeeded by Elihu Root, who has continued 
his policy. Especial attention has been given to creat- 



§ 183. RECENT EVENTS. 485 

ing friendly feeling among the American Republics, 
and during the autumn of 1906 Secretary Root made a 
tour of South America and was everywhere most enthu- 
siastically received. 

The Republic of Cuba had maintained a rather pre- 
carious independence since its establishmen-t after the 
Spanish War. During the autumn of 1906 it cuban 
appealed through its president to the United Troubles. 
States for intervention, and a provisional governorship 
was established in the island under United States con- 
trol. 



486 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. ii 



topics and questions. 

156. The Cost of the War. 

1. Federal army after the war. 

2. The treatment of Confederate prisoners. 

3. The character of the war. 

4. Two things settled by the war. 

5. The cost in money and lives. 

157. The Era of Reconstruction. 

1. Johnson's views of reconstruction. 

2. The conditions under which he recognized the restoration 

of the states. 

3. Further guarantees deemed necessary by Congress. 

4. The states reconstructed. 

5. Why their governments proved unsatisfactory. 

6. Why the Tenure of Office bill was passed. 

7. The president's defiance of it. 

8. The response of the House of Representatives. 

9. The consequences in case of the president's conviction. 

10. The trial and its issue. « 

11. The French in Mexico. 

12. The purchase of Alaska. 

13. The election of 1868. 

158. The Progress of the Country. 

1. The increase in population. 

2. The Pacific railroad. 

3. Improvement in education. 

4. Great names in literature. 

5. Great names in historical writing. 

159. The Treaty of Washington. 

1. The Alabama claims. 

2. The method of adjusting them. 

3. The award. 

4. The settlement of a boundary line. 

5. The value of the example set under the treaty. 

6. The right of expatriation. 

7. The British theory of this right. 

8. How the German emigrant was interested in the question. 

9. The United States view admitted at last. 

160. The Fifteenth Amendment. 

I. What it provided. 



Ch. XVI. RECENT EVENTS. 487 

2. Why the " carpet-bag " governments were disliked. 

3. How armed men influenced elections. 

4. How canvassers determined their results. 

5. How the peace of a state was often threatened. 

6. How affairs began to improve. 

161. The Election of 1872. 

1. The cry for civil service reform. 

2. The aims of the Liberal Republicans. 

3. How Horace Greeley came to be nominated. 

4. The result of the election. 

162. The Panic of 1873. 

1. Some of the causes of this panic. 

2. The condition of the national currency. 

3. Centennial anniversaries. 

4. Indian wars. 

5. The fate of Custer. 

6. Grant's policy towards the red men. 

163. Some Scandals. 

1. Bribery accusations. 

2. Salaries of United States officers. 

3. The salary grab. 

4. The whiskey frauds. 

164. The Election of 1876. 

1. Why many Republicans voted with the Democrats. 

2. Southern states with double returns. 

3. Conflicting claims for tlieir votes. 

4. The difficulty of settling these claims. 

5. A northern state with double returns. 

6. The method adopted to decide these disputed cases. 

7. How the cases were finally decided. 
5. Important Measures of Finance. 

1. The last of the carpet-bag governments. 

2. The Bland Silver bill. 

3. The resumption of specie payments. 

4. Strikes of workmen, 

5. Boycotting. 

6. The Pittsburgh riots. 

7. The election of 1S80. 
5. Civil Service Reform. 

1. Troubles about offices. 

2. The president shot. 



488 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

3. The act to reform the civil service. 

167. Prosperity of the South. 

1. The industrial exhibitions. 

2. Increase in the cotton crop. 

3. Increase in other crops. 

4. Growth of manufactures. 

5. The condition of the colored race. 

6. The present attitude toward slavery. 

168. Election of 1884. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. Mugwumps. 

3. History of the word Mugwump. 

4. Result of the election. 

169. The Tariff Question Prominent Again. 

1. The Walker tariff of 1846. 

2. The tariff of 1857. 

3. The Morrill tariff of 1861. 

4. Later revisions. 

5. Cleveland's tariff recommendations. 

170. Important Legislation during Cleveland's Adminis- 

tration. 

1. Dangers from a disputed presidential succession. 

2. Settlement of the question of conflicting returns. 

3. The presidential succession as determined by act of 1791. 

4. A contingency not provided for. 

5. A requirement of fair dealing. 

6. The succession as fixed by act of 1S86. 

7. The Interstate Commerce Act. 

8. Our relations with China. 

171. The Election of i88q. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of the election. 

172. Principal Events of Harrison's Administration. 

1. The admission of new states. 

2. The Sherman act of 1890. 

3. The McKinley Tariff act of 1890. 

4. The principle of reciprocity. 

5. The Pan-American Congress. 

6. Our relations with Chili. 

7. International copyright. 

8. The Australian ballot system. 



Ch. XVI. RECENT EVENTS. 



489 



173. The Election of 1S92. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of u.e election. 

174. Principal Events in Cleveland's Second Adminis- 

tration. 

1. Fear that gold payments might be suspended. 

2. The depression of 1893. 

3. Repeal of the Sherman act of 1890. 

4. Dispute over the catching of seals. 

5. Outbreaks of striking and boycotting. 

6. The admission of Utah as a state. 

175. The Election of 1896. 

1. The currency issue. 

2. The presidential nominees. 

3. The result of the election. 

176. Important Events in McKinley's First Administra- 

tion. 

1. Wheat and "hard times." 

2. The Venezuela boundary and international arbitration. 

177. The War with Spain. 

1. Causes of the war 

2. Principal events of the war. 

3. The terms of the peace. 

178. Other Important Events of thls Administration. 

1. Imperialism and the Philippine insurrection. 

2. The " Boxer " troubles in China. 

179. The Election of 1900. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of the election. 

180. Events of the McKinley-Roosevelt Administration. 

1. Assassination of McKinley. 

2. Civil government in the Philippines. 

3. The Panama Canal. 

4. The Alaskan boundary. 

5. The Pacific cable. 

6. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 

7. Strikes in 1902-1904. 

181. The Election of 1904. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of the election. 



490 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

182. Industrial Prosperity. 

1. Results of prosperity. 

2. The curbing of great corporations. 

3. Insurance investigations. 

4. The San Francisco disaster. 

183. Political Events. 

1. The treaty of Portsmouth. 

2. Progress of the Panama Canal. 

3. Diplomatic successes. 

4. Troubles in Cuba. 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX A. 

NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES, WITH 
MENTION OP^ BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF THE 
SEVERAL STATES. 

^^" The clue to the meaning of Indian names cannot always be found, and 
popular interpretations are sometimes fanciful and ill supported. Hence, I can- 
not always give a positive statement on these points. 

^^" In the enumeration of books on state history given below, I have some- 
times separated one title or group of titles from those which follow it by intro- 
ducing a semicolon. The titles which precede the semicolon are those of books 
which I recommend especially to readers who cannot afford time for extensive 
study of the subject. A dash before the semicolon, instead of a title, means that 
I do not know of any book to be specially co\Ta\\&c\A.tA for that pariictdar pur' 
pose. In the case of some of the newer states, there is as yet scarcely any histori- 
cal literature in available shape. Much valuable information is contained in 
King's Handbook of the United States, Buffalo, N. Y., Moses King Corporation, 
1891. — The parenthesis (A. C.) after a title means that the book is one of the 
series of American Commonwealths, published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., and 
(J. H. U.) means that it is one of the series of monographs published by the 
Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore. 

Alabama, named from its principal river. The name is com- 
monly supposed to mean " Here we rest," and these words are on 
the state's coat-of-arms ; but this interpretation has been doubted. 

Pickett's Hisfory of Alabama, Charleston, 1851, 2 vols. 

Alaska, name given by Captain Cook in the maps of his voyage 
in 1778, said to be a corruption of an aboriginal word, al-ak-shak, 
meaning " great land," or " main land." 

Ball's Alaska and its Resources, Boston, 1870. Hubert Ban- 
croft's Alaska, San Francisco, 1886. 

Arizona, of uncertain meaning. 

Hubert Bancroft's Arizona and New Mexico, San Francisco, 
1888. 

Arkansas, after its principal river. The meaning of the name 
is uncertain; it may be akin to Kansas. A resolution of the state 
senate, in 1881, declared the true pronunciation to be Ar'kan-saw. 
It was formerly often spelled so, and it would perhaps be well if 
this more correct spelling could be restored. A popular name of 
Arkansas is the Bear State. 

; Henry's Resources of Arkansas, Little Rock, 1872. 

California. In a Spanish romance, printed before 1520, the 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 493 

name Calirornia was given to an imaginary island somewhere in 
the Far East, " near the Terrestrial Paradise." A party of Span- 
iards, coming in 1535 to the peninsula which we now call Lower 
California, believed that they had found this romantic island, or a 
place quite like it, and named it accordingly. Afterward, when 
the country to the north of the peninsula was discovered, it was 
called Alta California, that is, High California. Since this became 
one of the United States, the adjective has been dropped. A pop- 
ular name is the Golden State. 

Royce's California (A. C.) ; Soule's Annals of San Francisco, 
New York, 1855. Hittell's Resources of California, San Fran- 
cisco, 1S63. Hubert Bancroft's History of California, San Fran- 
cisco, 1884-90, 7 vols. 

Carolina. The name was given by Ribault and his Huguenots 
(§ 26) in 1562 to a fort which they built near Beaufort, S. C. It 
was given in honor of Charles IX., king of France, and, as it 
would serve as well for one Charles (Lat. Carolus) as another, the 
name, which had come to be applied to the neighborhood, was 
retained by Charles II., king of England (§ 64) in his charter of 
1663. South Carolina is familiarly known as the Palmetto State, 
and its neighbor is often called the Old North State. 

Hawks's History of A'orth Carolina, Fayetteville, 1S57, 2 vols. 
Martin's History of A'orth Carolina, New Orleans, 1S29, 2 vols. 

Simms's History of South Carolina, New York, 1S60. Simms's 
CiCOi^rapJiy of Soutli Carolina, Charleston, 1843 ; Ramsey's History 
of the Revolution of Soitth Carolina, Trenton, 1785, 2 vols. Lo- 
gan's History of the Upper Country of South Carolina, Charleston, 
1S59; McCrady's History of South Carolina under the Proprie- 
tary Government, New York, 1807. 

Colorado, after the river of the same name, a Spanish adjective 
meaning " red," the prevailing color of the rocks and soil of the 
Rocky Mountains, as well as of the mud-laden streams which flow 
down from them. A favorite nickname is the Centennial State, 
because it was admitted to the Union just one hundred years after 
the Declaration of Independence. 

; Bowles's Coloi'ado, '6\ir\ng^Q\6., 1889. Fossetts's Colo- 
rado, Denver, 1777. 

Connecticut, after its principal river, the Algonquin name mean- 
ing " long river." The state is sometimes called the Land of 
Steady Habits; also the Nutmeg State, from the jocular calumny 
that its peddlers were in the habit of palming off wooden nutmegs 
on their customers. 



494 APPENDIX 

Johnston's Connecticut (A. C), Levermore's Republic of New 
Haven (J. H. U.) ; TrMvahwlVs History of Connecticut, New Haven, 
1818, 2 vols. SiWts's History of Aficient Witidsor, Albany, 1858, 
2 vols. 

Dakota, or " the allies," is the name by v^fhich the people of the 
greatest of the northwestern Indian confederacies called themselves. 
Their neighbors, the Ojibwas, called them Nadowaysioux, or " en- 
emies," and French pioneers shortened this name to Sioux. The 
state of North Dakota is sometimes called the Sioux State, while 
its southern sister has been called the Coyote State. 

; Dodge's The Black Hills, New York, 1876. Neill's 

DakotaJi Land and Dakotah Life, Philadelphia, 1859. 

Delaware. The name of Lord Delaware (§ 34) was given first 
to the bay, then to the river, finally to the state. 

; Ferris's History of the Original Settlements qn the Del- 
aware, etc., Wilmington, 1846. 

Florida is the Spanish adjective for " flowery." Pascua Florida, 
" Flowery Passover," is the Spanish name for Easter Sunday, the 
day on which Ponce de Leon (§ 22) rediscovered Florida, in 15 13. 

'Qr'mX.ori's Notes on the Floridian L^eninsula, Philadelphia, 1859. 
Fairbanks's tY/j/^/j of Florida, Philadelphia, 1871. Fairbanks's 
History and Antiquities of St. Augustine, New York, 1858. 
Lanier's Florida. Lts Scenery, Climate, and History, Philadelphia, 
1876. 

Georgia, named after King George II. 

Jones's History of Georgia, Boston, 1883, 2 vols. ; Stevens's 
History of Georgia, New York, 1847, 2 vols. White's Historical 
Collections of Georgia, New York, 1855. 

Idaho, a Shoshone name, said to refer to the bright sunshine 
on the mountain tops, so characteristic of that strangely beautiful 
country. 

; Fry's Traveller'' s Guide to the Great Northwestern 

Territories, Cincinnati, 1865. 

Illinois, the name of its principal river, and of the confederated 
tribes dwelling along its banks. Sometimes called the Prairie State. 

; Carpenter's History of Lllinois, Philadelphia, 1857. 

Bross's History of Chicago, Chicago, 1876. Ford's Histo?y of 
Illinois, Chicago, 1854. Edwards's History of Illinois, Spring- 
field, 1870. 

Indiana, a name coined for the territory formed in 1800, out of 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 495 

which have been made the states of Indiana, IlHnois, and Wiscon- 
sin, with part of Michigan. Indiana is sometimes called the Hoosier 
State, a nickname of which the origin and meaning are uncertain. 

Dunn's Indiana [A. C.) ; Dillon's Histoty of Indiana, Indian- 
apolis, 1859. Goodrich & Tuttle, History of Indiana, 1876. 

Iowa. Of the various conjectural explanations of the name, I 
am inclined to prefer that which derives it from Algonquin ajawa, 
"across" or "beyond," as a name applied by the Illinois tribes to 
their enemies on the other side of the Mississippi. The well-known 
nickname is the Hawkeye State. The epithet was suggested in 
1838 to James Edwards (editor of the newspaper since known as 
The Hawkeye), by Hon. David Rorer, who afterward made it 
popular by his series of letters signed "A Wolverine among the 
Hawkeyes." 

; Tuttle & Durrie, Illustrated History of the State of 

Iowa to 1875. 

Kansas. This name (the English spelling of which should have 
been Kansaw) seems to be a Dakota word meaning "south wind 
people," and applied to various Indians south of the Dakotas. 

Spring's Kansas {A. C); Tuttle's Centennial History of the 
State of Kansas, Madison, Wis., 1876. Holloway's History of 
Kansas, Lafayette, 1868. 

Kentucky, probably an Iroquois word kenta-ke, " hunting 
land." The common interpretation, the " dark and bloody ground," 
is doubtless wrong. The nickname is Blue Grass State. 

Shaler's Kentucky (A. C.) ; Humphrey Marshall's History of 
Kentucky, Frankfort, 1824, 2 vols. Collins's History of Kentucky, 
Covington, 1874, 2 vols. Smith's History of Kentucky, Louisville, 
1895. 

Louisiana, after Louis XIV. (§ 68). Sometimes called the Peli- 
can State, from its coat-of-arms. 

Gayarre's History of Louisiana, New York, 1866, 3 vols. Mar- 
tin's History of Louisiana, New Orleans, 1827, 2 vols. 

Maine, so called in the charter of 1639, in which Charles I. 
granted the land to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The name had al- 
ready come into vogue among sailors, as distinguishing the main- 
land from the numerous islands on its coast. The popular nick- 
name is the Pine Tree State. 

Williamson's History of Maine, Hallowell, 1839, 2 vols. ; Willis's 
History of Portland, Portland, 1865. 

Maryland, so called for Henrietta Maria, the queen of Charles I. 

Browne's Maryland {A. C); Neill's Founders of Maryland^ 



496 APPENDIX 

Albany, 1S77. McSherry's History of Maryland, Baltimore, 1849. 
Scharf's History of Maryland, Baltimore, 1879, 3 ^'^Is. 

Massachusetts, from the Algonquin phrase niassa-wachjiscf, 
" at the great hill." The name first designated the tribe living near 
Blue Hill, in Milton; it was afterward applied to the great bay 
which Blue Hill overlooks. Until 1692, the colony was called the 
"Massachusetts Bay Colony;" then, until 1776, the style became 
the "Province of Massachusetts Bay." It is often called the Bay 
State. 

Barry's History of Massachusetts, Boston, 1857, 3 vols. ; Young's 
Chronicles of the First Planters, '^o^X.oxi, 1846. Quincy's History 
of Boston, Boston, 1S52. Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts 
Bay, vols. i. and ii., Salem, 1795, vol. iii., London, 1828. Holland's 
Histoiy of Western Massacliiisetts, Springfield, 1855, 2 vols. 
Winthrop's History of A^eiv England, from 1630 to 1649, Boston, 
1853, 2 vols. Bradford's Histoiy of Plymouth Plantation, Boston, 
1856, Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, Boston, 1844. 

Michigan, after the name of the lake, in Algonquin, 7nichi-gan, 
"great sea." Sometimes called the Wolverine State. 

Cooley s Michigan (A. C.) ; Lanman's History of Michigan, 
New York, 1839. Tuttle's General History of Michigan, Detroit, 
1873. hTiUxm.n's Red Book of Michigan, Detroit, 1871. 

Minnesota, after its river of the same name, in the Dakota lan- 
guage, minne, " water," and sotah, " sky-colored." Sometimes 
called the North Star State, from the motto in its coat-of-arms. 

; Neill's Histo?y of Minnesota, Philadelphia, 1858. 

Mississippi, from Algonquin missi-scpe, " great river." Missi, 
7nichi, and massa are dialectic forms of one and the same Algon- 
quin word, meaning "great." The popular interpretation, " Father 
of Waters," is a mere fancy. The state is nicknamed the Bayou 
State, from the frequent bayous formed by the shifting river. 

; Lowery and McCardle's History 0/ Mississippi, Jackson, 

1 89 1. Davis's Recollections 0/ Mississippi and Mississippians, 
Boston, 1890. 

Missouri, from missi-souri, "great muddy" (river). It brings 
down from the Rocky Mountains so much brown mud that the 
water, taken up in a tumbler, looks almost like coffee. The water 
of the upper Mississippi is clear and blue. Below the junction 
the brown color prevails. The Missouri is a far greater body of 
water than the upper Mississippi. Indeed, the Missouri, with the 
lower Mississippi, really constitutes the mainstream, and the upper 
Mississippi is the tributary. 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 497 

Can's Af/ssoi/n (A. C.) ; T>?i\\s'?, Illustrated History of Missojiri, 
St. Louis, 1876. Schoolcraft's Journal of a Tour into Missouri 
and A rkansa7(.', \.or\don, 1S21. 

Montana, a Spanish adjective, meaning "mountainous." 

; Maguire's Historical Sketch of Montana, Helena, 1S68. 

Stuart's ^fontana as It Is, New York, 1865. 

Nebraska, from an Indian name of the Platte River, said to 
mean "shallow water."' 

]o\\Ti?,ovL?, History of Nebraska, Omaha, iSSo. 

Nevada, a Spanish adjective, meaning "snowv." The name of 
the state was taken from the Sierra Nevada, the range of lofty- 
mountains separating it from California. 

; Powell's iVei'ada, the Sih'cr State, San Francisco, 1S76. 

King's Monntaineering in the Sierra A-evada, Boston, 1874. 

New Hampshire, so named for its lord proprietor, John Mason 
(§ 45), who had been governor of Portsmouth, in Hampshire, Eng- 
land. The popular name is the Granite State, from the rocks and 
soil of the White Mountains. 

Belknap's History of A'e7u Hampshire, V^o^ion, 18 13, 3 vols. 
Sanborn's History of A^ civ Hampshire, Manchester, 1875. Starr 
King's The White Hills, Boston, 1876. 

New Jersey, after the island of Jersey in the English Channel, 
of which Sir George Carteret (§ 62) had been governor. 

"SleXWck'^ Story of an Old Farm, Somerville, N. J., 1889. Gor- 
don's History of New Jersey, Trenton, 1834. 

New Mexico, after Mexico. The name was originallv applied 
only to tlie city of Mexico, and was derived from the name of the 
war-god, Mexitl. 

Brevoort's Neii' Mexico, Santa Fe. 1874. 

New York, for the Duke of York, afterward King James II. 
It is often called the Empire State. 

Roberts's New York, 2 vols. (A. C.) ; Brodhead's History of the 
State of A'ew York, New York, 1853-71,2 vols. Mrs. Lamb's 
History of the City of A^eiu York, New York, 1877. 2 vols. Weise's 
History of Troy, Troy, 1876. Turner's Histvy of the Holland 
Purchase, Buffalo, 1849. Thompson's History of Long Island, 
New York, 1839. Stiles's History of B?-ooklyn, Albany, 1867,3 
vols. Barnes's ^'rtr/j' History of A Ibajty, A\h^.ny, 1864. Stone's 
Life of Joseph Brant, Albany, 1865, 2 vols. Stone's Z?/^ of Red 
Jacket, Albany, 1866. Stone's Life of Sir William Johnson, 
Albany, 1865, 2 vols. 



I 



49^ APPENDIX 

Ohio, from Iroquois 0-hee-yo, " beautiful river." The name was 
first applied by the people of the Five Nations to the river which 
we call by its Algonquin name of Alleghany, one of the chief trib- 
utaries of the Ohio. By degrees the name Ohio may be said to 
have traveled downstream until it was even sometimes applied to 
the Mississippi. At length it became confined to the river between 
Pittsburgh and Cairo, and the first northern state erected upon its 
banks was named after it. Sometimes nicknamed the Bucke3'e 
State, from the abundance of horse-chestnut trees. 

Rufus King's Ohio (A. C.) ; Fernow's Ohio Valley hi Colonial 
Days, Albany, 1890. Life, Journals, etc., of Manasseh Cutler, 
Cincinnati, 1888, 2 vols. Carpenter's History of Ohio, Philadel- 
phia, 1865. Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Cincinnati, 
1875-91, 3 vols. 

Oklahoma, said to mean " fine country." 

Oregon. The traveler Jonathan Carver, while in the Minne- 
sota country in 1 766, seems to have heard of a great river very far 
to the west, called Oregon, which may perhaps be the Algonquin 
wau-re-gan, " beautiful water." The name was afterward applied 
to the Columbia River, and thence to the country through which it 
flows. Sometimes called the Sunset State. 

Barrows's Oregon (A. C.) ; Wyeth's C>ri?^<7;;, Cambridge, 1833. 
Travers Twiss, The Oregon Question, London, 1846. Greenhow's 
History of Oregon, New York, 1845. Gray's History of Oregon, 
Portland, 1870. Hubert 'Bancroii^s History of Oregon, San Fran- 
cisco, 1886-88, 2 vols. Dye's McLoughlin and Old Oregon. 

Pennsylvania, " Penn's Woodland." Sometimes called the 
Keystone State, probably because her name was carved on the 
keystone of the bridge over Rock Creek, between Washington and 
Georgetown. Of the original thirteen states Pennsylvania was the 
middle one, with six to the north and six to the south of her. At 
a later period the epithet " Keystone " was commonly used with 
reference to the great importance of the state in national elections. 

Carpenter's History of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1869. Wat- 
son's Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 
1876, 3 vols. Stoughton's IVilliavi Penn, London, 1882. Chap- 
man's History of IVyotning, Wilkes-Barre, 1830. Stone's Poetry 
and History of IVyoming, AVo2iny, 1864. Brackenridge's /2^/j'/(5irj' 
of the Western Insurrection, Pittsburgh, 1859. Day's Historical 
Collections of Pennsylvattia, Philadelphia, 1843. Gordon's History 
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1829. Graydon's Memoirs, Har- 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



499 



irisburg, 1811. ]onQ&?, History of the jfuniafa J W/<y, Philadelphia, 
; 1856. Momhtr\.''s History of Lancaster Cojitity, Lancaster, 1869. 
. Allinson & Penrose's Philadelphia (J. H. U.). 

I, Rhode Island. The Indian name of the island upon which the 
i city of Newport stands was Aquidneck. The English name has 
been variously explained, but the Colonial Act of 1644 declares 
" the island of the Aquidneck shall be called the Isle of Rhodes," 
and this would seem to indicate that the name was taken from the 
famous Greek island in the Mediterranean. The official title of 
the state to-day is the " State of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations," but in common speech the name of the island stands 
for the whole. 

Arnold's History of Rhode Island, New York, 1874, 2 vols. ; 
^\.x-Mx^'?, Roger Williams, New York, 1894. Dexter's y^j- /^ Ti^^^;' 
Williams, Boston 1876. Rider's Historical Tracts, Providence, 
187S, and following years. 

Tennessee, after the name of its principal river, a Cherokee 
word, meaning " crooked river " or " bend in the river." 

Phelan's History of Tennessee, Boston, 1S8S ; Ramsey's Annals 
of Touiessce, Philadelphia, 1853. Paschall's Tennessee Histojy for 
Tennessee Girls and Boys, Nashville, 1869. Putnam's History of 
Middle Tennessee, Nashville, 1859. Old Times in West Tennessee, 
Memphis, 1873. Keating's History of Memphis, Syracuse, N. Y., 
1 888. Smith's East Tennessee, London, 1842. 

Texas, the name of a tribe or confederacy of Indians mentioned 
by Cabeza de Vaca (§ 23), who passed through their country in 
1536. Nickname, the Lone Star State (§ 126). 

Thrall's History of Texas, New York, 1876. Brown's History of 
Texas, St. Louis, 1892, 2 vols. Smith's Reminiscences of the Texas 
Republic, Houston, 1876. Olmsted's Journey through Texas, New 
York, 1857. Colonel Crockett's Adventures, London, 1837. Mrs. 
Davis's Under Six Flags, Boston, 1897. Garrison's Texas (A. C). 

Utah, an Indian word, said to mean "mountain home." 

Hubert Bancroft's Utah, San Francisco, 1889; Burton's Citv of 
the Saints, New York, 1862. Green's Fifteen Yeais among the 
Mormons, New York, 1858. Stenhouse's Rocky Mountain Saints, 
New York, 1873. 

Vermont, from French verts monts, " green mountains." 

Robinson's Vermont (A. C.) ; Allen's History of Vermont, Lon- 
don, 1798. Beckley's History of Vermont, Brattleboro, 1846. 

Virginia, for Elizabeth, the " Virgin Queen." Often called the 



500 APPENDIX 

Old Dominion, because Charles II. allowed it to call itself the 
fourth dominion of his empire, i. e., England, Scotland, Ireland, 
and Virginia. 

Esten Cooke's Virginia (A. C). Miss Magill's History of Vir- 
ginia for Schools, Lynchburg, 1881. President Jefferson's Azotes 
on Virginia ; Neill's History of the Virginia Company, Albany, 
1869. ViON^xX^f's, History of Virginia, London, 1705. ViwxV's, His- 
tory of Virginia, Petersburg, 1804-16, 4 vols. Stith's Settlement oj 
Virginia, New York, 1865. Meade's Old Churches and Families 
of Virginia, Philadelphia, 1857, 2 vols. Tyler's Letters and Tiines 
of the Tylers, Richmond, 18S4, 2 vols. 

Washington, named for the Father of his Country. It was 
formerly the central portion of the Oregon country, which also 
comprised Oregon, Idaho, and British Columbia. 

Hubert Bancroft's Washington, Idaho, and Montana, San Fran- 
cisco, 1887. Hubert Bancroft's Northwest Coast, San Francisco, 
1884, 2 vols. ; Swan's Northwest Coast, New York, 1856. Revere's 
Keel and Saddle, Boston, 1872. 

West Virginia, separated from the Old Dominion in 1863. 

De Hass's History of the Early Settlement of litest Virginia, 
Wheeling, 185 1. Atkinson's History of Kanawha County, Charles- 
ton, W. Va., 1876. De Bar's I Vest Virginia Handbook, Parkers- 
burg, 1870. Parker's Formation of I Vest Virginia, Wellsburg, 
1S75. 

Wisconsin, after the name of its chief river, possibly an Ojibwa 
phrase, meaning " gathering waters." Sometimes called the 
Badger State. 

Thwaite's Story of Wisconsin, Boston, 1891 ; Wheeler's Chroni- 
cles of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, 1861. Tuttle's History of Wiscon' 
sin, Madison, 1875. Randall's History of the Chippewa Valley, 
Eau Claire, 1875. 

Wyoming, an Indian word, said to mean "broad valley." 
The new state in the Rocky Mountains has received the name of a 
famous valley in the Alleghanies. 

^txdih.oTn's Handbook of Wyoming, Cheyenne, 1877. 



Many of the books above mentioned are old and not easily obtainable at 
ordinary bookstores. For information concerning such books, or for obtaining 
them if desired, I would advise the reader to apply to 'J'he Robert Clarke Com- 
pany, Cincinnati, Ohio, who keep by far the largest collection of books on 
America that can be found on sale in this country. 



BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 5OI 

APPENDIX B. 

BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 

The letters (A.S.) in a parenthesis after the title of a book indicate 
that it is one of the series of " American Statesmen," published by Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co. since 1SS2. The letters (M. A.) indicate that it is one of the series 
of "Makers of America," published by Dodd, Mead, & Co. since 1S90. 

Prehistoric Times and the Discovery. Fiske's The Discovery 
of America^ with So/ne Account of Ancient America and the Span- 
ish Conquest, Boston, 1892, 2 vols.; Nadaillac's Prehistoric Ajner- 
tea, New York, 1S90. 

Colonization of North America. Parkman's works for every- 
thing relating to the French ; Bandelier's The Gilded Man, New 
York, 1893, for some pictures of the Spanish occupation; Doyle's 
Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas, New York, 1882; Doyle's 
The Ptirita7i Colonies, New York, 1887, 2 vols.; Palfrey's ///x/<7ry 
of New England, Bo?,iox\, 1858-89, 5 vols. ; Fiske's Old Virginia 
and her N^eighbours, Boston, 1897, 2 vols., The Beginnings of 
New England, 1889, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies, 1899, 2 
vols., and New France and New England, 1902 ; P>anklin's Auto- 
biography ; Twichell's John IVintlirop (M. A.) ; Walker's Thomas 
Hookcr(}A. A.); Higginson's Francis Higginson (M. A.) ; Wendell's 
Cotton Mather {M.A.)\ Kmg's Sieurde Bienville (M. A.); Browne's 
George and Cecilius Calvert (M. A.); Bruce's Oglethorpe (M. A.); 
Tuckerman's Peter S/uyvesant (M. A.); Griffis's Sir IVilliam 
Johnson (M. A.) ; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies. 

The Revolution. Frothingham's Rise of the Republic, Boston, 
1872 ; Greene's Historical View of tlie American Revolution, New 
York, 1865; Irving's Life of Washington, New York, 1855-59, 
5 \'ols. ; Fiske's War of Independence {for Young People), Bos- 
ton, 1889; Fiske's The American Revolution, Boston, 1891, 2 vols.; 
Fiske's The Critical Period of American History, Boston, 1888; 
Roosevelt's The Winning of the West, New York, 1889-96, 4 vols. ; 
Trevelyan's The American Revolution, New York, 1898; Tyler's 
Patrick Henry (A. S.); Hosmer's Samuel Ada?ns (A. S.); Hos- 
mer's Thomas Hutchinson, Boston, 1896; Morse's Benjamin 
Franklin (A. S.); Lodge's George Washington (A. S.), 2 vols.; 
Woodrow Wilson's George Washington, New York, 1897; Ford's 
The True George Washington, Philadelphia, 1896; V€[\&W?, John 
Jay (A. S.); Sumner's Robert Morris (M. A.); Scudder's George 



502 APPENDIX 

Washington, Boston, 1889 ; Cofifin's Boys of'jd. Especially inter- 
esting to girls will be Mrs. Ellet's Domestic History of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, Philadelphia, 1850. For full references, see Win- 
sor's Reader''s Handbook of the American Revolution, Boston, 1S80. 

The Federal Union. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. Mc- 
Master's History of the People of the United States, vols, i.-v., 
1783-1830, New York, 1883-1900; Sc\\on\&r^& Histo}y of the United 
States, 1 783- 1 86 1, New York, 1880-99, 6 vols. ; Henry Adams's His- 
tory of the United States, 1 801 -18 17, New York, 1889-91, 9 vols. ; 
Roosevelt's The Naval War of 1812, New York, 1882; Roose- 
velt's Gouverneur Morris (A. S.) ; Morse's yohfi Adams (A. S.); 
Gay's fames Madison (A. S.); Stevens's Albert Gallatin (A. S.); 
Gilman's fames Monroe (A. S.); Adams's fohn Randolph (A. S.): 
Magruder's ^6'//;^ Afajshall (A. S.); Morse's Alexander Hamil- 
ton, Boston, 1876, 2 vols. ; Sumner's Alexander Hamilton (M. A. ); 
Schouler's Thomas fefferson (M. A.) ; Parton^s Thomas fefferson, 
Boston, 1874; Coffin's Building the Nation, New York, 1883. 

WESTWARD EXPANSION. Benton's Thirty Years' View, New 
York, 1854, 2 vols.; Parton's Andrew fackson. New York, 1859, 

3 vols. ; Sumner's Andrew fackson (A. S.); Morse's fohn Quincy 
Adams (A. S.); Von Hoist's fohn C. Calhoun (A. S.); Schurz's 
Henry Clay (A. S.), 2 vols. ; Lodge's Daniel Webster (A. S.) ; Roose- 
velt's Thomas H. Benton (A. S.); Shepard's Martin Van Burcn 
(A. S.) ; McLaughlin's Lewis Cass (A. S.) ; Hosmer's Short History 
of the Mississippi Valley, Boston, 1901. 

SLAVERY AND SECESSION. Rhodes' s History of the United 
States from the Co7npromise of 18^0, New York, 1893-99, 4 vols. ; 
Nicolay and Hay's Abraiiam Lincoln, New York, 1890, 10 vols. ; 
Moxst's Ab?'ahafn Lincobi (A. S.), 2 vols. ; Herndon's y^(^;'«/;^w 
Lincoln, New York, 1892, 2 vols.; Lothrop's William H. Seward 
(A. S.); Adams's Charles Francis Adams (A. S.); Hart's Salmon 
P. Chase (A. S.); McCall's Thaddeus Stevens (A. S.); Storey's 
Charles Sumner {K. S.); Pierce's Charles Sumner, Boston, 1877- 
93, 4 vols.; Life of William Lloyd Garrison, Boston, 18S5-89, 

4 vols. ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, New York, 1887, 
4 vols. ; Cajnpaigns of the Civil War, New York, 1881-83, 13 
vols., viz. : I, Nicolay's The Outbreak of Rebellion, 2, Force's From 
Fort Henry to Corinth, 3, Webb's The Pettinsula, 4, Ropes's The 
Army under Pope, 5, Palfrey's Antietam and Fredericksburg, 6, 
Doubleday's Chancellor sville and Gettysburg, 7, Cist's The Army 
of the Cwnberland, 8, Greene's The Mississippi, 9, Cox's Atlanta, 
10, Cox's The March to the Sea: Franklin and Nashville, iij 



BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 5O3 

'ond's The SJicnandoaJi Valley, 12, Humphreys's TIic Virginia 
Campaigns of 1864-6J, 13, Phisterer's Statistical Record of the Ar- 
nies ; an introduction to vol. xii. is Humphreys's From Gettysburg 

the Rapidan ; a companion series is The Navy in the Civil 
War, New Yorlc, 1883, 3 vols., viz. : i, Soley's The Blockade and 
he Cruisers, 2, Ammen's The Atlantic Coast, 3, Mahan's The 
7 u If and Inland Waters. A very brilliant and useful summary of 
he whole subject is Colonel Dodge's A Bird^s-Eye View of our 
"ivil War, Boston, 1884, revised in 1897. 

Among Southern works may be cited Jefferson Davis's Short 
History of the Confederate States, New York, 1890; A. H. Stephens's 
View of the War between the States, Philadelphia, 1S68, 2 vols.; 
rooke's Life of Robert Edward Lee, New York, 1871 ; Dabney's 
Stonewall fackson, London, 1864, 2 vols.; Polk's Life of Leonidas 
^olk. New York, 1893, 2 vols.; Jones's Rebel War Clerk's Diary, 
Philadelphia, 1866, 2 vols. ; Pollard's The Lost Cause, New York, 
[866. Many of the commanders on both sides have written valua- 
)le volumes of personal memoirs, as, for example, Grant, Sherman, 
Sheridan, McClellan, Porter, J. E. Johnston, Early, Semmes, etc. 

For sound and masterly military criticism one should especially 
■ead Ropes's Story of the Civil IVar, vols, i., ii.. New York, 1894- 
)8; while Henderson's Stonewall fackson. New York, 1898, 2 vols., 
s perhaps the ablest and most elaborate monograph that has been 
published concerning any of the eminent commanders. 

For youthful readers I would recommend Champlin's Young 
Folks' History of the War for the Union, New York, 1881 ; Coffin's 
Drumbeat of the Nation, Redeeming the Republic, Marching to 
Victory, and Freedom Triumphatit, New York, 1887-89. 

For the Cuban insurrection and the recent war with Spain, the 
following books may be read: Flint's Marching with Gomez, Bos- 
ion, 1898; Davis's The Cicban and Porto Rican Campaigns, New 
York, 1898; Morris's The War with Spain, Philadelphia, 1898; 
Wilcox's A Short History of the War with Spain, New York, 1898. 

1 For very full references and directions on the whole subject of 
American history, an invaluable book is Gordy & Twitchell's A 
■Pathfinder in American History, Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1893. 
fhis little book ought to be in every school library. 

'; By far the best of brief manuals is Epochs of American History, 
edited by A. B. Hart, in 3 vols.: i. The Colonies (1492-1750), by 
^. G. Thwaites ; 2. Formation of the Union (i 750-1829), by A. B. 
4art ; 3. Division and Reunion (i 829-1 889), by Woodrow Wilson. 
Vlso, Hart's Epoch Maps (all N. Y., Longmans, 1892-93). 



504 APPENDIX 

In his Ainerican History told by Contemporaries, vols, i., ii., New 
York, 1897-98, Prof. Hart has made an excellent collection of ex- 
tracts from original sources. 

A book of constant usefulness is Macdonald's Select Dociivients 
Illustrative of the History of the United States, New York, 1898. 



APPENDIX C. 



NOVELS, POEMS, SONGS, ETC., RELATING TO AMER- 
ICAN HISTORY. 

I may first mention those contained in the Riverside Literature 
Series, published by Houghton, Mifiiin & Co. : — 

No. I. Longfellow's Evangeli?ie; 2. Longfellow's Courtship of \ 
Miles Standisli; 6. Holmes's Grandmother s Story of Bunker Hill 
Battle, etc.; 7-Q. Hawthorne's Grandfather's Cliair ; 10. Haw- 
thorne's Biographical Stories; 13, 14. Longfellow's Song ofHia-l 
watha ; 15. Lowell's Under the Old Elm, etc.; 19, 20. Franklin's 
Autobiography ; 24. ^^eikvvsx^X.ovi?, Rules of Conduct ; 30. Lowell's 
Vision of Sir Launfal and Other Poems j 31. Holmes's My Hunt 
after the Captain, etc. ; 32. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, and Other 
Papers J 33. Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn (part i. contains 
"Paul Revere"s Ride"); 42. Emerson's Fortune of the Republic; 
51. Irving's 7?//) Vati PVinkle, etc.; 56. Webster's First Bunker 
Hill Oration, and Adams and fefferson ; G. extra, IVhittier Leaf- 
lets; L. extra. The Riverside Song Book. ^ 

In the following list the publishing house is indicated in the pa- 
renthesis. 

Tourgee's Out of the Sunset Sea (N. Y. : Merrill &: Baker) is a 
story based on the imaginary adventures of the one English sailor 
who was in the first voyage of Columbus across the Atlantic. 

Miss Proctor's Song of the Ancient People, with Introduction by 
John Fiske (Boston : Houghton) introduces us to the religious ideas 
of the Moquis and Zunis (§ 8). 

Munroe's The Flamingo Feather (N. Y. : Harper) relates to the 
Huguenot colony in Florida in 1564. 

Kingsley's Westward Ho (N. Y. : Macmillan) gives a grand and 
stirring picture of Queen Elizabeth's times and the defeat of the 
Spanish armada. 

1 See also advertising pages at the end of the book. 



NOVELS, POEMS, SONGS, ETC. 5O5 

Mrs. Stowe's The Mayflower, Mrs. Austin's Standish of Stand- 
ish^ and its sequel, Betty Alden, also the same author's Dr. Le 
Baron and Jiis Daughters., and A Nameless A'oblenian (Boston : 
Houghton) are charming tales of Plymouth and the Pilgrims. 

Longfellow's New England Tragedies (Boston : Houghton) treat 
of the persecution of the Quakers, and the Salem witchcraft. 

Cogswell's The Regicides (N. Y. : Colonial I'ubl. Co.) gives a 
spirited account of the New Haven colony during the search for 
Goffe and Whalley. 

Seton's Romance of the Charter Oak (N. Y. : O'Shea) takes us 
to Hartford in the evil days of Andros. 

Bynner's The Begum'' s Daughter (Boston : Houghton) gives a 
vivid description of life in New York during Leisler's usurpation. 

Paulding's The Dutchman's Fireside (N. Y. : Scribner), one of 
the earliest American novels, deals with colonial life in New York. 
It won a European reputation, and was translated into several lan- 
guages. 

Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York (N. Y. : Put- 
nam), a humorous and mildly satirical account of the Dutch col- 
ony of New Netherland, will doubtless always be a charming book. 
It is one of the very few burlesques of history that deserve to live. 

Mrs. Catherwood's The Story of Tonty (Chicago : McClurg) 
gives a vivid account of Henri de Tonty, the loved and trusted 
lieutenant of La Salle. The same author's The Ro?nance of Dollard 
(N. Y. : Century Co.) and The Lady of Fort St. fohn (Boston: 
Houghton) may also be commended as stories of early times in 
Canada. 

Miss Johnston's To Have and to Hold, Prisoners of Hope, and 
Audrey (Boston : Houghton) are brilliant stories of early Virginia. 

Mrs. Goodwin's White Aprons (Boston: Little, Brown Sc Co.) is 
a charming story of the time of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. 

Gordon's E/iglishma/i's Ha7>en (N. Y. : Appleton) takes us to 
the island of Cape Breton, whose capital, Louisburg, had been 
until 1 713 called English Harbor. 

Bynner's Agnes Surriage (Boston : Houghton), one of the great- 
est of American historical novels, gives a picture of life in Boston 
at the time of the famous Louisburg expedition of 1745. 

Thackeray's The Virginians (Boston : Houghton) is a noble 
story of life in the Old Dominion, beginning about the time of 
Braddock's defeat. 

Kennedy's Swallo7U Barn is a pretty story of old Virginia ; his 
Rob of the ^fw/ describes the province of Maryland in the time of 



5o6 APPENDIX 

the second Lord Baltimore; and his Horse-Shoe Robinson is a tale 
of South Carolina in the Revolutionary War. (All published in 
N. Y. by Putnam.) 

Simms's The Partisan (N. Y. : U. S. Book Co.) has its scene 
in South Carolina in the Revolution. 

Cooper's Last of the Mohicans is a story of the last French or 
Seven Years' War ; his Lionel Lincoln shows us Boston at the time 
of the Bunker Hill fight; The Spy shows us the Hudson River, 
and The Pilot treats of Paul Jones; while the Leather Stocking 
Tales cover the Revolutionary period. (All pubHshed in Boston 
by Houghton.) 

Other stories of the Revolution are Mrs. Child's The Rebels 
(Boston, 1825); Brush's Paul and Persis (Boston: Lee & Shep- 
ard), with scenes in the Mohawk valley ; Thompson's The Green 
Mountain Boys (Boston : Lee & Shepard), treating of Burgoyne's 
invasion; Ogden's .4 Loyal Little Redcoat (N. Y. : Stokes), deal- 
ing with New York Tories ; Miss Hoppus's A Great Treason (N. Y.: 
Macmillan), which gives us Arnold and Andrd large as life ; Miss 
Jewett's A Tory Lover (Boston : Houghton), introducing Paul Jones ; 
and Tomlinson's The Boys of Old Monmouth, A Jersey Boy in 
the Revohition, Ln the Hands of the Redcoats, and Under Colonial 
r^'^rj- (Boston : Houghton), the last of which tells the story of i 
Arnold's invasion of Canada. 

McCook's The Latimers (Philadelphia: Jacobs & Co.) is a tale 
of the so-called " Whiskey Insurrection " of 1794. 

Bynner's Zachary Phips (Boston : Houghton), dealing with 
Burr's expedition and the War of 181 2, is interestmg, though far 
inferior to his other novels. 

Seawell's Little Jarvis refers to the cruises of the Constellation, 
1 798-1 800, and Midshipman Paulding to the War of 181 2 (both 
N. Y. : Appleton); and the latter subject is well handled in G. C. 
Eggleston's three stories, Signal Boys, Captain Sam, and Big \ 
Brother (all N. Y. : Putnam). In three stories by Edward Eggle- 1 
ston — The Circuit Rider and The Hoosier Schoolboy (N. Y. : Scrib- 
ner), and The Hoosier Schoolmaster {H. Y. : Judd) — we have fine 
descriptions of the early days of Indiana. 

Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston: Houghton) has been ; 
mentioned in the body of this history (§ 129). It has been trans- 
lated into more languages, perhaps, than any other book except 
the Bible. 

Among the stories of our Civil War may be mentioned Goss's | 
/(?^and Tom Clifton (N. Y. : Crowell) ; Henty's With Lee in Vir- ' 



MINIMUM LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. 50/ 

gtfti'a {N.Y.- Scribner); Pagers A //wftj^ //u- Camps, and Tivo I.ittle 
Confederates (^. Y. : Scribner); Mrs. Austin's Dora Dar/im^, or 
the Daughter of the Regiment (Boston : Lee & Shepard) ; and 
Churchill's The Crisis. Trowbridge's Dniminer Boy, Three 
Scouts, and Cudjo's Cavo (Boston : Lee & Shepard) are also 
recommended. 

Page's Red RoL-k : a Story- of Reco7istrnction in Virginia (N. Y. : 
Scribner) gives an excellent picture of the period following the 
Civil War. 

Patriotic and historical poems may be found in Browne's Bm^le 
\Echoes (N. Y. ; White, Stokes & Allen); Butterworth's Songs of 
\History (Boston : New Eng. Pub. Co.) ; McCabe's Ballads of 
Battle and Bravery (N. Y. : Harper) ; White's Poetry of the Civil 
War (N. Y.: Amer. News Co.); Moore's Songs of the Soldiers, 
Lyrics of Loyalty, 2ia.d. Rebel Rhymes and Rhapsodies (N. Y. : 
Putnam). 

1^^ In the foregoing bibliographical notes I have made no sort of pretense to 
completeness, but they are surely full enough for school purposes, or for the ordi- 
nary student. In the following .'\ppendix G., Dr. Hill has obliged me by indi- 
cating his idea of a minimum reference library for schools. 



APPENDIX D. 

c MINIMUM LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. 

BY FRANK A. HILL. 

The following books are recommended as a Minimum Library of 
Reference to be used in connection with Fiskes School History 
of the United States. i It is desirable that each .school should have 
a more generous list of reference books than this, and attention is 
called to the preceding bibhographical notes by Dr. Fiske (Appen- 
dix D, E, F,) from which excellent selections are possible. It has 
been thought wise to limit the topics for collateral reading to a list 
that should easily be within the reach of the average school, in the 
hojie that a definite effort would be made to obtain it. Fiske's his- 
torical writings are included because it was out of them that this lit- 
tle School History grew. Parkman covers, in an accurate, brilliant, 
and readable way, the whole field of New France down to its final 
overthrow. Cooke presents to us the greatest of the southern colo- 
nies and one that has left as deep an impress upon our history as any 
i An advertisement of the Minimum Library will be found at the end of the book. 



5o8 



APPENDIX 



of the thirteen. McMaster gives us graphic pictures of the life, the 
activities, and the controversies of the common people since the 
Revolution. And in the Old South Leaflets, pupils will find many 
old documents in very inexpensive form which may be studied with 
the same confidence that might be given to their rare originals. 

By John Fiske, — Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston : 

The Discovery of America, 2 vols. 

Old Virginia and her Neighbours, 2 vols. 

The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols. 

The Beginnings of New England. 

New France and New England. 

The American Revolution, 2 vols. 

The Critical Period of American History. 
By Francis Parkman, — Little, Brown & Co., Boston: 

The Pioneers of France in the New World. 

The Jesuits in North America. 

La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. 

The Old Regime in Canada. 

Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. 

A Half-Century of Conflict, 2 vols. 

Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols. 

The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 2 vols. 

By John Esten Cooke, — Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston: 

Virginia, — a History of the People. 
By John Bach McMaster, — D. Appleton & Co., New York City: 

History of the People of the United States (vols. i.-v. ready). 
Old South Leaflets,! edited by Edwin D. Mead. 



APPENDIX E. 
THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 

In connection with the precise date of the discovery of America 
by Columbus (p. 28), I have been requested to explain what is 
meant by Old Style and New Style, and I do so with pleasure. 
The subject seems for a moment to take us far away from America, 
but it is one which every student of history ought to understand, 
and its bearing upon American history is not without importance. 

Nature of the Problem. — The accurate arrangement of months 
and days in the year is not so easy as one might at first imagine. 
1 See advertisement at the end of the book. 



THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 509 

The ancients found it a very puzzling task, and it was never cor- 
rectly performed until just before the Christian era. 

The period of a day, from sunrise to sunrise, is easily understood ; 
but the period of a month, from new moon to new moon, is not 
quite so simple ; it requires careful observation to tell just how 
many days intervene between one new moon and the next. The 
period of a year presents much greater difficulties. We can see 
the daytime grow shorter until the weather grows colder, while the 
sun's daily path across the sky is steadily lowered toward the south ; 
then comes a change, and as the sun's path rises toward the zenith, 
the daytime slowly lengthens, and by and by the weather grows 
warmer. All this is easy to see, but it is not so easy to detect the 
very day of the sun's turning back, or to tell just how many days 
have intervened between the shortest day last winter and the short- 
est day this winter. It requires some skill in astronomy to do that; 
ordinary observation cannot do it. 

It was, therefore, difficult work to fit the months into the year. 
If a lunar month contained exactly four weeks, or 28 days, there 
would be thirteen such months in our year, and one day over. 
There are 52 weeks and one extra day in our solar year ; hence if 
any day of the month, such as the Fourth of July, or Christmas, 
comes upon Monday in any year, it will come upon Tuesday the 
next year, and so on (except in a leap-year, when the jump is 
from Monday to Wednesday, etc.). 

The Ancient Confusion. — At an early time the Greeks observed 
correctly that a lunar month contains about 29I days, and so they 
tried to make a year consisting of twelve months, some with 29 days 
and some with 30. The same thing was tried by the Romans. The 
attempt resulted in a year of 355 days, which was rather more than 
ten days too short. It was soon observed that the annual festivals 
came around too soon. For example, the great May festival in 
honor of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, belonged in the season of 
blossoms, but coming ten days earlier every year it soon arrived 
in the season of frosts. To remedy this absurd inconvenience an 
extra month was now and then thrown in, and the confusion grew 
worse and worse. It became difficult to know when a specified 
date had occurred, or was going to occur, and in many business 
transactions this was a great annoyance. 

The Julian Calendar. — In the year B. c. 46, Julius Ccesar under- 
took to put an end to this confusion, and very simply and skillfully 
he did it. Astronomers had found that the true length of the year 
is about 365^ days. So Caesar added ten days to the old-fashioned 



I 



5IO APPENDIX 

year, distributing them here and there, so as to make four months 
with 30 days and seven with 31, while he left February with 28. 
This made 365 days, and in order to provide for the fraction, Caesar 
directed that in every fourth year an extra day should be added to 
February, thus making what we call a leap-year. 

This arrangement, known as the Julian Calendar, ended the con- 
fusion, and it was more than a thousand years before any further 
correction was seen to be necessary. We are still using the Julian 
year as Caesar shaped it. But in his work there was one slight in- 
accuracy. The year does not contain exactly 365! days, that is, 
365 days and 6 hours. The true length is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
minutes, and nearly 48 seconds. Csesar's year was thus 1 1 minutes 
and 12 seconds too long, and in adding an extra day in every leap- 
year he added 44 minutes and 48 seconds (that is nearly | of an 
hour) too much. In a century this excess ameunted to more than 18 
hours, and in a thousand years it had grown to be about a week. 
In the time of Columbus all dates were 9 days too late, and some 
people had noticed that the winter days began to lengthen before 
Christmas arrived. 

The Gregorian Calendar. — In 1582, this error was corrected 
by Pope Gregory XIII. The correction was very simple. In the 
Julian Calendar all centurial years were leap-years. Gregory de- 
creed that henceforth only each fourth centurial year should be a 
leap-year. Thus the years 1600, 2000, 2400, etc., should have 366 
days, but 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc., should have only 365. Then 
Gregory took a fresh start by dropping out 10 days, so that the day 
after October 4, 15S2, was reckoned and called October 15. Thus 
Gregory changed Old Style into New Style. The Gregorian 
Calendar is so nearly accurate that the remaining error will not 
amount to a day until about A. d. 5200 ; and this will probably 
be avoided by omitting February 29, A. d. 3600. 

The New Style was immediately adopted in Catholic countries, 
but its adoption by non-Catholic nations was retarded bysilly preju- 
dice. The Protestant states of Germany adopted it in 1700, and 
England in 1752, by which time it had become necessary to drop 
out 1 1 days. Russia still uses Old Style, and the difference is now 
13 days, so that August i is in Russia called July 19. 

Times of Beginning the Year. — Another difference Detween 
Old Style and New Style relates to the beginning of the year. In 
old Roman usage March was the first month, so that September 
was really the seventh month, October the eighth, etc., etc. Julius 
Ceesar decreed that his reform should go into operation with the 



THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 511 

first new moon after the winter solstice (shortest day) of b. c. 46. 
That new moon came on January i, b. c. 45, and thus started the 
New Year. Caesar's work in reforming the calendar was commem- 
orated by naming the midsummer month Julius ; and the next month 
was afterward named for his successor, Augustus. 

The practice of beginning the year with January, however, did 
not prevail. In the Middle Ages it sometimes began with Christ. 
mas, but more often with March 25 ; and this latter was the practice 
in England and the American colonies until 1752. The restoration 
of January i as New Year's day was part of the reform which we 
owe to Pope Gregory XIII. 

Application to American History. — All dates ^n American 
history before 1752 are commonly given in Old Style, except in a 
few cases where the date has been rectified for use in public anni- 
versaries. For example, George Washington was born February 
II, 173 1, o. s., and this we have very properly amended into Febru- 
ary 22, 1732, N. s. Neglect of the differences between Old Style 
and New Style has sometimes betrayed historians into great and 
strangely complicated blunders. Several difficulties in the life of 
Columbus, by which scholars have been hopelessly baffled, had 
their origin solely in forgetfulness of the differences in reckoning 
time, and have at length been cleared up in my Discovery of 
Ame?-ica (as, e. g., vol. i. pp. 402-407). 

In this School History I have given days and months previous to 
1752 in Old Style (except the three Mayflower dates on page 89); 
but when I mention years they are always to be understood as be- 
ginning with January i. Here let me mention a curious error in 
the date of the landing of the Pilgrims, as very often given. The 
date was December 11, o. s. When Plymouth people began in 
1769 to celebrate the anniversary they carelessly added 1 1 days and 
thus made it December 22, n. s. They should have added only 10 
days, which would give the true date, December 21, n. s. 

I have been asked why I do not translate all dates whatever 
into New Style (as, e. g., on page 30, why not give July 3 instead 
of June 24 as the date of Cabot's landfall, etc., etc.). Such an in- 
novation upon the general custom of historians would be attended 
with many inconveniences, of which I will mention only one speci- 
men. The principal ship of Columbus, called the Santa Maria, 
was wrecked on the coast of Hayti, December 25, 1492, o. s., which 
was of course the day celebrated by all Christendom as Christmas. 
Now if the date were given in New Style, would it seem just right 
to say that this wreck occurred on Christmas Day, January 3, 1493 ? 



512 



APPENDIX 



Would not such a statement require just as much explanation as 
our present practice? It is well to simplify things as much as pos- 
sible, but this world was not so put together as to save us the 
troubls of using our wits. 

Standard Time in the United States and Canada. — This 
subject has nothing to do with the calendar, but a few words on it 
here may be useful. The establishment of standard time is an 
event in our history worth remembering. Since the earth rotates 
upon its axis in 24 hours, while its circumference contains 360 de- 
grees of longitude, it follows that each hour corresponds to ^-^ =: 
15 degrees. At any point the sun rises one hour earlier than at a 
point 15 degrees further west. At any point it rises |^ = 4 minutes 
earlier than at a point one degree further west. For example, the 
meridian of Boston is about 3 degrees east of the meridian of New 
York, and local time in Boston is about 12 minutes faster than in 
New York. These differences in local time are innumerable, and 
were found to be very inconvenient for persons using rai/roads. In 
almost every town it used to be necessary to remember that " rail- 
road time" was not the same as the time indicated on the town 
clock. In 1883, this inconvenience was remedied by the adoption 
of "standard time." The whole country was divided into four sec- 
tions (see map inside front cover), each 15 degrees of longitude in 
breadth. All places in each section use the time of the meridian 
running through the centre of the section. When you pass from 
one section into the next, the time becomes one hour slower if you 
are moving westward, one hour faster if you are moving eastward. 
Eastern time is that of the 75th meridian. Central time that of the 
90th, Mountain time that of the 105th, Pacific time that of the 120th. 
When it is noon at all places in the Eastern section, it is 11 A. M. 
at all places in the Central section, 10 A. m. at all places in the 
Mountain section, and 9 A. M. at all places in the Pacific section. 
This neat and simple system is now in use all over the United 
States and the Dominion of Canada. 

The system is exhibited on the map inside the front cover of this 
book, where the Eastern and Mountain sections are colored green, 
while the Central and Pacific sections are contrasted in yellow. 
From various considerations of railroad convenience the bounda- 
ries of the sections are in some places quite irregular. In reckon- 
ing longitude the meridian of Greenwich (in London) is usually 
adopted as the starting point ; and our map shows how noon in 
London is 7 A. M. in our Eastern section, etc. It is to be hoped 
that this system of standard time will be adopted in all countries. 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Key to the tnarks : fate, lat, father, fall, care; theme, yet, her; 
pine, pin ; bone, not, orb ; moon, foot ; tune, but, burr. 

Observe also the obscure vowels, a (as in Durham), e (as in Jeru- 
salem), 6 (as in Burton). These vowels a, e, 6 occur in unaccented 
syllables; they are much shorter than a, e, 6; they sound very 
much like one another, and not altogether unlike u, though shorter 
and less definite. 

Observe that th has two different sounds, in thin and this; the 
latter is here indicated by dh. Gh is hard, as in ghost. 

The French sounds ii, N, r, and the German CH (eciuivalent to 
Spanish x and j) can only be learned by careful practice after hear- 
ing them spoken. 

Spaniards always lisp z and also c when followed by e or i ; and 
they never buzz the final s as we do. For example, Cespedes is 
pronounced thas'pe-das. Tlie .Spanish n always sounds ny. For 
example, canon is pronounced can-yon' ; we call it can'yon. 



Abenaki, ab'na-kl 

Agiiinaldo, a-ghe-nal'do 

Aix la Chapelle, aks la sha-pel' 

Alainon — -Span., a-la-mon' 

Albemarle, al'be-marl 

Aleutian, a-lu'shl-an 

Ali^iers, al-jerz' 

Ali:;onquin, al-gon'kin 

Alleghanies, al'e-ga-nez 

A //I eric us Vespucius, a-mer'I-ciis 

ves-pu'shiis 
Amerigo Vespucci, a-ma-re'go 

ves-poot'che 
Andri, an'dra 
An tiros, an'dros 
Annapolis, an-nap'6-lis 
Ant let am, an-te'tam 
.Ipache, a-patch'i 
A quia, a'kwi-a 
Aquidneck, a-kwTd'nek 
A raucaniatis, ii-ro-ca'nT-anz 
Aristotle, ar'is-tutl 
> A rizona, ar-i-z6' na 



Arkansas, ar'kan-sa 
Armada, ar-ma'da 
Ashburton, ash'bur-ton 
Athabascan, ath-a-bas'kan 
Ayllon, il-y5n' 

Bahatna, ba-ha'ma 

Balboa, bal-bo'a 

Banastre Tarleton, ban'as-ter 

tarl'ton 
Batidelier, ban-de-lcr' 
Barbary, bar'ba-rl 
Beauregard, b5'ri-gard 
Bellomont, bel'o-mont 
Bering, ba'ring 
BibliotJidque de Rouen — French, 

bib-li-6-tak' de roo-oN' 
Bienville — French, bi-oN-vel' 
Birmingham, ber'ming-am 
Blanco, blanc'6 
Bo7i Homme Richard — French. 

bon-om-re-shar' 
Bonnechose — French, bon-shoz' 



514 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Bouquet, boo-ka' 

Bowling Grecfi, bo'ling gren 

Brazil, bra-zil' 

Breckinridge, brek'in-rij 

Breton, bret'on 

Brittany, brit'a-ni 

Broke, brook 

Buchanan, boo-kan'an 

Buell, bu'el 

Biiena Vista, bwa'na vTs'ta 

Buenos Ayres, bwa'nos I'res 

Burgoyne, bur-goin' or bur-gwin' 

Cabeza de Vaca, ca-ba'za (Span. 

ca-ba'tha) da va'ka 
Cabot, cab'ot 
Cabral, ca-bral' 
Cadiz, ca'dTz or ca'diz {^Spa7i. 

ca'deth) 
Caliokia, ca-ho'ki-a 
Calhoun, cal-hoon' 
Camara, ca'ma-ra 
Canonchet, ca-noii'tchet 
Canoniciis, ca-non'i-cus 
Caribbean, car-T-be'an 
Cartier, cJir-tya' 
Cecilius Calvert, se-sTl'i-us cal'- 

vert 
Cervera — Span., ther-va'ra 
^hamplain, sham-plan' 
Charlevoix — French, sharl-vwa' 
Chattanooga, tchat-a-noo'ga 
Cherokee, tcher-6-ke' 
Chesapeake, tches'a-pek 
Chicago, shi-ka'go 
Chickahontiny, tchTk-a-hom'i-nT 
Chickaniauga, tchik-a-ma'ga 
Chili, tc he'll 
Chipango, tchi-pan'go 
Chippewa, tchip'e-wa 
Cibola, se'bo-la {Span, the'bo-la) 
Claiborne, cla'born 
Claudius Ptolemy, clau'di-us tol'- 

e-mi 
Coligny, c6-len-ye' 
Conite — French, coNt 
Connecticut, con-ct'i-cut 
Cornwallis, corn-wal'is 
Coronado, c6r-o-na'do 



Coureurs de Bois — French, coo- 

rer' de bwa' 
Credit Mobilier, cred'it mo-bil'- 

yer {French, cra-de' mo-be-ya') 
Crevecccur, crav-ker' 
Cristoforo Colombo, crifs-to'fo-ro 

c6-16m'b6 
Cristoval Colon, cris-to'val c6-l6n' 
Culpeper, cul'pe-per 
Cyane, sl-an' 
Csolgosz, chol'gosh 

Dearborn, der'bon or der'burn 
Decatur, de-ca'tur 
Delftshaven, delfts'ha-ven 
Detroit, de-troit' 
Dinwiddle, din-wid'i 
Dominique de Gourgues, do-mi- 

nek' de goorg' 
Donelson, don'el-son 
Driplesses — French, dii-ple-se' 
Duquesne, doo-kan' 
Durham, dur'am 
Dti Simitiere — French, dii se- 

mi-tyar' 

Fau Claire, 5 klar' 
El Caney, al cii'na 
Ericsson, er'Ik-son 
Estevan Gomez, es-te-van' go'' 

mez 
Eutaw, u'ta 

Faneuil, fun'el 
Farragut, far'a-gut 
Ferdinand, fer'di-nand 
Ferdinando Gorges, f er-di-nan'do 

gor'jes 
Flamborough, flam'bo-ro 
Ffemont, fre-mont' 
Frobisher, frob'ish-er 
Frontenac, fron-te-nak' 
Fulton, fool'ton 

Genet, zhe-na' 
Genoa, jen'6-wa 
Ghent, ghent 
Gillespie, ghifl-es'pl 
Gosnold, goz'nold 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



515 



Graffenricd, graf'en-red 
Guam, <j;vvain 

Giierriere — French, gher-ri-arr' 
Guiana, ghi-a'na 

Hackensack, hak'en-sak 
Haverhill, lia've-ril 
Hawaii, ha-wl'e 
Hayti, ha'ti 
) Herkimer, her'ki-mer 
Hesse Cassel, hes'e ca'sel 
Hiaivaiha, he-a-\va'tha 
Hindusta)i, hin-dob-stan' 
Honduras, hon-doo'ras 
Huguenot, hu'ghe-not 

I Iberville, e-ber-vel' 
! Illinois, Tl-i-noi' 

Indiana, in-dT-a'na 

Ingoldsby, in'golz-bi 

Iowa, I'o-wa 
i Iroquois, ir'6-kwa 

luka, I-oo'ka 

' yacqjies — French, zhak 
I Janauschek, yan'ow-shek 

Jean Ribault, zhax' re-bo' 
' Jogues — French, zhogh 
■ Joliet, zho-lya' 

jfuan Ponce de Leon — Span., 
j hwan pon'tha da la-on' {often 
called pons' do le'on) 

Kaskaskia, kas-kas'kl-a 

Kearney, kar'ni 
Kearsarge, ker'sjirj 
Keiicsaw, ken'e-sa 
Kennebec, ken-e-bek' 
Kosciuszko — Polish, kosh- 

tchcJos'ko, often called kos-si- 

us'ko 

Labrador, lab'ra-dor 

Lac Qui Parle, lak ke pari' 

Ladrone, la-dro'na 

La Farge, la farj' 
, Lafayette, iji-fa -yet' 
J Landgrai<e, land'grav 
I La Plata, la pla'ta 



La Salle, la sal' 

Las Casas, las ca'sas 

La Vengeance — French, la v6n- 

zlioNs' 
Le Ba'uf, le bef 
Leif, llf 
Leisler, lis'ler 
Lenape, len-a-pa' 
Lery, le-re' 
Levari t, le-vant' 
Leyden, li'den 
F Insiirgenie — French, laN-siir'- 

zhoNt' 
Lopez, lo'pez 
Louisburg, loo'is-burg 
Louisiana, loo-e-zT-a'na 

Macdonough, mac-don'o 

Macomb, ma-ccK)m' 

Madeira, ma-da'ra 

Madras, ma-dras' 

Madrid, ma-drid' 

Afagellan, maj-e-lan' or ma-jel'an 

Manila, ma-nll'a 

Manua, nia'nob-a 

Maracaibo, ma-ra-kl'bd 

Marcos de Nizza, miir'kos da 

nit'sa 
Marquette, mar-kef 
Maryland, mer'i-land 
Maskoki, mas-ko'ki 
Massasoit, mas-a-soit' 
Matagorda, mat-a-gor'da 
Maximilian, max-T-mil'yan 
Mayas, ma'yaz 
McCrea, ma-cra' 
Mediterranean, med-T-ter-a'ne-an 
Mejico — - Span., ma'cHe-co 
Menendez, ma-nen'dez 
Miantonomo, "mi-an-to-no'mo 
Michigan, niTsh'i-gan 
Minuit, min'oo-Tt 
Mobile, mo-bcl' 
Modocs, mo'docs 
Mohegans, mo-he'ganz 
Mohican, mo-hik'an 
Monsieur — French, moN-sier' 
Afontana, mon-tri'na 
1 Montcalm, mont-kam' 



5i6 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Montfort, mont'fort 
Moiitojo — Spa?t., mon-to'CHo 
Montreal, mon-trl-al' 
Moqiii, mo'ke 
Morocco, mo-rok'o 
Moultrie, mool'tri or moo'trl 

Narragansett, nar-a-gan'set 
Naninkeag, nam-keg' 
NiUivoo, na-voo' 
Navarrete, na-var-ra'ta 
Neivfoufidland, noo'fund-land 
Nicaragua, nik-a-ra'gwa 
Nipimicks, ntp'muks 
Norridgewock, nor'ij-wiik 
NottiiigJia7nshire, not ' ing - em - 

sher 
Nueces, noo-a'sez {Span, noo-a'- 

thas) 

Ogallala, o-ga-la'la 
Oglethorpe, ogl' thorp 
Ojibwas, 6-jib'\vaz 
' OklahoDia, 6-kla-ho'ma 
Oneida, o-nT'da 
Oregon, or'e-gon 
Oriskany, or-Is'kan-I 
Ostetid, OS-tend' 
Oswego, 6s-we'go 
Ottawas, ot'a-waz 

Paketihajn, pak'e-nem 

Palatinate, pa-lat'i-nat 

Palo Alto, pa'lo al'td 

Palos, pa'los 

Panfilo de N^arvaez, pan'fi lo da 

nar-va'ez 
Paraguay, pa-ra-gwT' 
Peirce, purs 
Pemaqiiid, pem^a-kwid 
Pepperell, pep'e-rel 
Pernavtbuco, per-nam-boo'ko 
Philippine., fil'i-pen 
Phips, fipz 
Pierce, purs 
Pinzon, pTn-zon' {Span., pin- 

thon') 
Pisa, pe'za 
Piscataqua, pls-cat'a-kwg 



Plymouth, plim'oth 

Poe, po 

Poinponius Mela, p6m-po'nI-us 

ma'la 
Pontiac, p6n'ti-ak 
Porto Seguro, por'to se-goo'r5 
Potomac, p6-t6'mac 
Potosi, p5-t6-se' 
Pottawatomies, p6t-a-w6t'6-miz 
Poutrincourt, poo-traN-koor' 
Powhatan, pow-ha-tan' 
Prairie du Chien, pra-rl doo 

shen' 
Preble, prebl 
Presque Isle, pres kel' 
Prussia, prush'a 
Pueblos, pwa'bloz 
Pulaski, poo-las' kl 
Pynchon, pln'tchon 

Quebec, kwe-bek' 

Raleigh, ra'Ii 
Rapidati, rap-i-dan' 
Regime — French, ra-zhem' 
Resaca de la Palma, ra-sii'ka da 

la pal' ma 
Rio Grande, re'6 gran'de 
Roanoke, ro'a-nok 
Rochambeau, ro-sham-b5' 
Roosevelt, ro'ze-velt 
Rosecrans, ro'ze-kranz 
Russia, rush 'a 
Rutherfurd, rudh'er-furd 
Ryswick, rTz'wTk 

St. Augustine, sant au'gus-ten 
Saint Esprit, saNt es-pre' 
St. Leger, sant lej'er 
Samoan, sa-mo'an 
Sanchez, san'tchez {Span, san'- 

tchath) 
San Jacinto, san ja-sTn'to 
San Juan, san Chwan 
San Miguel, san mi-gel' 
San Roque, sin ro'ka 
Santiago, sant-e-a'g5 
Saratoga, sar-a-to'ga 
Sarum, sa'rum 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



517 



Sault Sainte Marie, soo sant 

ma-re' 
Schenectady, ske-nek'ta-dl 
Schley, shla 
Schojield, sko'feld 
Schuyler, ski'ler 
Schuylkill, skool'kTl 
Sebastian, se-bas'tT-an 
Seminole, sem-i-no'Ie 
Senecas, sen'e-kaz 
Seward, soo'ward 
Seymour, se'mer 
Shackamaxon, shak-a-mak's6n 
Shenandoah, shen-an-do'a 
Shi'oh, shrlo 
Sic semper tyrannis — Latin, sic 

sem'per ti-ran'is 
Sieur de ilfonts, sTer de moN' 
Sieur de Roberval, sier de ro-ber- 

val' 
Sigel, se'ghel 
Sioux, soo 
Slidell, sli-del' 
Sloughter, slo'ter 
Somers, sum'erz 
Stanton, stan'ton 
Staten, stat'en 
Steuben, shtoi'ben 
Stuyvesant, sti've-sant 

Tallapoosa, tal-a-p6o'sa 
Talleyrand, tal'e-rand {French 

ta-la-roN') 
Tarratines, tar'a-tenz 
Tecumseh, te-kiim'ze 
Tennessee, ten-e-se' 
Terra de Pascua Florida, ter'ra 

da pas'kwa flor-e'da 
Thames, temz 
Thorjinn Karlsefni, tor'fin kjirl- 

sePnT 
Ticonderoga, tl-kon-de-ro'ga 
Tippecanoe, tip-e-ka-noo' 
Toledo, to-lc'do 
Tonty, t5n-te' 
Toscanelli^ tos-ka-nel'll 



To7unshend, town'zend 
Tremont, tre-mont' 
Trimonntain, tri-moun'ten 
Tripoli, trip'6-li 
Tuscarora, tus-ka-ro'ra 
Tuttiila, too-too-e'la 

Ulysses, yoo-lis'ez 
Uruguay, oo-re-gwl' 
Utrecli t, 00' t re c 1 f t 
Uxmal, ooks'mal {Span. doCH- 
mal') 

Valcour, val-koor' 

Valladolid, val-ya-do-led' 

/ 'alparaiso, val-pa-ri'zo 

Vaticouver, van-koo'ver 

Vasco da Gam a, vas'kd da gii'ma 

Vasqttez d'Ayllon, vas'kez dil- 
yon' 

Vassall, vas'al 

Venango, ve-nan'go 

Venezjiela, ven-e-zwa'la 

Vera Cruz, va'ra krooz 

Veragua, ve-ra'g\va 

Verrazatio, var-ra-tsa'no 

Vincennes, vin-senz' 

Vincente Yanez Pinzon, vin-sen'- 
te yan'yez pin'zon {Span., vln- 
than'ta yan'yath pin-thon') 

Vitiis Bering, ve'toos ba'ring 

IV abas Ji, w a' bash 
IValdsecmuller, valt'sa-miil-er 
Wampanoag, wam'pa-nog 
Warwick, war'ik 
Wayne, wan 
Wyoming, wT-o'ming 

Vemassce, yem-a-se' 
Yucatan, yoo-ka-tan' 
Yukon, yoo'kon 

Zachariah, zak-a-rl'a 
Zachary, zak'a-rl 
Ziuii, zoo'nye 



INDEX. 



Abenakis, 167. 

Abercrombie, Gen. James, 173. 

Abolitionists, 335, 354, 360, 363. 

Acadia, map of, 165; inhabitants removed 

from their liomes, 170. 
Adams, Charles Francis, 342, 448. 
Adams, John, 210,247, 274-278; portrait, 

276. 
Adams, J. Q., 286, 316, 320, 404; portrait, 

316; presidency, 317-320; in House of 

Representatives, 335. 
Adams, Samuel, igo, 195, 199, 201, 204; 

portrait, 190. 
Adobe, fortresses, 10. 
Africa, circumnavigation of, 23, 24. 

Agriculture, Indian, 5. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 167. 

Alabama claims, 446. 

Alabama, cruiser, 385 ; sunk by the Kear- 
sarge, 425. 

Alabama, state of, admitted to the Union, 
3'3- 

Alaska, 3H ; bought from Russia, 444 ; dis- 
coveries of gold in, 479 ; boundary, 4S1. 

"Albany Plan," 187, 188, 253. 

Albany, settlement of, 130 ; force sent from, 
against Montreal, 164; in the Revolution, 

223- 

Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk, George. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 503. 

Alert, British sloop, captured by the Essex, 

2S9. 
Alexander Archer, story of, 405. 
Alexander VI., Pope, 32. 
Algonquins, 8, q, 21, 54, 102, 132, 175. 
Alien and Sedition laws, 277. 
Alleghany River, fortified by French, 168. 
Allen, Ethan, 205. 

Alpaca, 13. 

Amazon River, discovery of, 32. 

Amendments to the Constitution, I. to XII., 

277, 278, 356, XIII., 44.2, 

Xiy.,442, XV., 447, 

America supposed to be Asia, 2, 34, 59 ; 

discovery of, by Columbus, 28 ; why so 

named, 34. 
American commerce, laws injurious to, 249. 
American Horse, portrait of, 2. 
American party, 362. 

Americiis Vespucius, 30-35 ; portrait, 33. 
Amsterdam bankers refuse a loan to the 

United States, 268. 



Ancestor worship, 7. 

Anderson, Major Robert, 376. 

Andre, John, capture and execution, 237, 

23S; portrait, 238. 
Andros, Sir E., 113-116, 134, 135, 190, 202, 

203 ; portrait, 113. 
Annapolis, battle near site of, 127 ; seat of 

government of Maryland, 128. 
Annapolis Convention, 252. 
Anthracite coal, 328; strike of miners, 

482. 
Antietam, battle of, 402 ; picture of bridge 

over the 401. 
Ami-Mason party, 323. 
" Anti-Nebraska men," 360. 
Anti-Renters, 333. 
Apaches, 3, 10. 
Apollo Room in Raleigh Tavern, picture 

of, 197. 
Appomattox Court House, picture of, 427 ; 

Lee's surrender at, 427. 
Aquia Creek, 399. 
Aquidneck, bought by Mrs. Hutchinson, 

99. 
Arab voyages, 19. 
Araucanians, 40. 
Arbitration between Great Britain and 

United States, 446, 469, 472, 473. 

.Arctic Ocean, 62. 

Aristocratic government, 101. 

Aristotle, 25. 

Arizona, 10, 339. 

Arkansas, admitted to the Union, 334. 

Arlington, Lord, 76. 

Armada, Spanish. See Armada, the Invin' 
cible. 

Armada, the Invincible, defeat of, 60, 61. 

.Army, regular, size of, 441. 

Arnold, Benedict, Gen., 205, 208, 209, 217, 
227-230; portrait, 237; his treason, 237, 
238 ; his capture of New London, 240, 

24'- 
Arnold, Benedict, Governor of Rhode 
Island, his windmill, 21. 

Arthur, Chester A., his presidency, 455- 

458; portrait, 455. 
Articles of Confederation, 247, 251, 253. 
Ashburton treaty, 333. 
.Assumption of stata debts, 26S. 

Athabaskans, 3. 



520 



INDEX. 



Atlanta, capture of, 425. 

Atlantic cable. See Submarine cable. 

Austin, Moses, 337. 
Australian ballot, 466. 
Ayllon, Vasquez d', 42, 43. 
Aztec Confederacy, ij. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, his rebellion, 77. 
Bahama Islands, reached by Columbus, 28. 
Bainbridge, Capt. William, 291 
Balboa, 35. 

Baltimore, city of, 129 ; size of, in 1790, 
262 ; attacked by British, 300. 

Baltimore, first Lord, obtains grant of 
Maryland, 125, 126; portrait, 125 ; second 
Lord, succeeds his father, 126, 127 ; por- 
trait, 127. 

Bank of United States, 319, 324, 325, 332. 

See also National Bank. 
Banks, N. P., 393. 
Banks, state, 324. 
Bannocks, 3. 

Barbarous Indians, 3-9 ; picture of, 4. 
Barbary States, 2S3, 284. 
Barclay, Capt. Robert H., 296. 
Battery and Bowling Green, New York, in 

1776, jiicture of, 217. 
Bay Psalm Book, 106. 
Beacon Hill, 97. 
Beauregard. P. G. T., 376, 383, 390. 

Bell, John, 368, 369. 
Bellomont, Earl of, 137. 
Bemis Heights, 230. 
Bennington, battle of, 225. 
Benton, Thomas Hart, 325 ; portrait, 325. 
Bentonville, battle of, 427. 
Bering Sea troubles, 468 
Bering Strait, 42. 
Bering, Vitus, 37. 
Berkeley, Lord, 137. 

Berkeley, Sir W", 75-78, 116, 190; auto- 
graph, 75. 
Bermuda Islands, 31, 68, 6g. 
Bicycles, 494. 
Bienville, 167. 

Big Black River, 411. 

Biglow Papers, 445. 

Birney, James, 331, 338. 

" Black republicans," 360. 

Blaine, James G., 458. 

Blair, Francis Preston, 380, 381 ; portrait, 

380. 
Blanco, General, 474. 
Bland silver bill, 453, 454, 463. 
Blockade of southern coast during the Civil 

War, 374. 377, .3 go- 
Blockhouses, purpose of, 94, 162 : picture 

of, 163. 



Bonds, U. S., 421. 

Books most commonly read in iSth cen- 
tury, 263. 
Boone, Daniel, 233. 



Booth, J. W., 429. 

Border states in Civil War, 379-381. 

Boroughs in Old Virginia, 72. 

Boroughs, " rotten," 193. 

Boston and vicinity in 1775, map of, 204. 

Boston, founding of, 93. 

Boston in 1790, picture, 262 

Boston Massacre, 198, 199. 

Boston Port Bill, 203. 

Boston Tea Party, 200-203. 

Bouquet, Henry, 176. 

Bowling Green, 3-S8. 

Braddock's defeat, 170, 172. 

Bradford, William, 89, 90. 

Bragg, Braxton, 406, 422, 423, 425. 

Brandyvvine, battle of, 229. 

Brant, Joseph, Mohawk chief, 226, 327; 

portrait and autograph, 226. 
Brazil, discovery of, 33-35. 
Breckinridge, John, 36S, 369. 
Breed's Hill, 206 
Brewster, William, 89. 

British Columbia, 334; boundary settled, 446. 

British garrisons left in the United States 
in contravention of the Treaty of Paris, 
249. 

Brock, Gen. Isaac, 293-296; monument to, 
at Queenston, picture, 295. 

Broke, Sir Philip, 291. 

Bronze implements, 12. 

Brooke, Lord, loi. 

Brooklyn, population of, in 1830,328; an- 
nexed to New York, 477. 

Brooklyn Heights, 218. 

Brooks, Preston, 361. 

Brown, Jacob, 299. 

Brown, John, 367, 368. 

Brown, Robert, 87. 

Brownists. See Separatists. 

Brown's Gap, 396. 

Bryan, William Jennings, 470, 471. 

Bryant, William Ciillen, 337. 

Buchanan, James, his presidency, 362-371 ; 

portrait, 363. 
Buckner, Simon B., 471. 
Buell, Don Carlos, 388, 390, 406. 
Buena Vista, battle of, 340. 
Buenos Ayres, foundation of, 41. 
Bull Run, battle of (first), 383 ; (second), 

399- 
Blinker Hill, battle of, 206. 
Burgesses, House of, 72-74, 76. 
Burgoyne, John, 223-228; his surrender, 

230; portrait, 224. 
Burgoyne's Campaign, map, 229, 230. 
Burke, Edmund, 194. 
Burlingame, Anson, 462. 
Burlington, N. J., settlement of, 137, 138. 
Burns, Anthony, 356, 357. 
Burnside, A., 402, 412. 
Burr, Aaron, 278, 284. 
Bushy Run, battle of, 176. 
Butler, Gen. B. F., 402, 403. 



INDEX. 



521 



Clbnt, Jollll, 30, 50, 59. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 30. 

Cabral, 33. 

Cadiz, 30. 

Cahokia, 111., 167, 176. 

Cairo, 381, 382. 

Calendar, Julian and Gregorian, 546-550. 

Calhoun, Jolm Caldweli, 321, 322, 354. 

California, visited by English explorers, 
62 ; occupied by p'remont during Mexi- 
can war, 339 ; discovery of gold in, 340; 
rapid growth, 341; admitted to the Union, 

Calvert. See Baltimore. 

Camara, Admiral, 476. 

Camliridge, named in honor of Cambridge, 
Eng.,96, 97; dissatisfaction with govern- 
ment and emigration of many to Con- 
necticut, lor, 102. 

Camden, battle of, 235. 

Canada, first colony in, 51, 52 ; governed 
by Cliamplain, 53, 54 ; conquered by Eng- 
lish, 175; invaded by .Americans during 
the Revolution, 208, 209; in war of 1S12, 
294-296, 298; .Alaskan boundary, 481. 

Canada, Upper and Lower, 293. 

Canal with locks, picture, 317. 

Canals in the United .States, Chesapeake, 
Ohio, Erie, 252, 317, 318. 

Canary Islands, 27. 

Canonchet, iii, 112. 

Canonicus, 90, gi. 

Cape Ann, 86. 

Cape Breton, 50. 

Cape Breton Island, 30, 167. 

Cape Cod, 85. 

Cape Farewell, ig. 

Cape Fear, 51. 

Cape Honduras, 31. 

Cape of Good Hope, 31. 

Cape San Roque, 34. 

Cape Verde Islands, 32. 

Capital, establislied at City of Washington, 
270. 

Capitol at Washington, picture, 279. 

Caribbean .Sea, 30, 31, 276. 

Carleton, Sir Guy, 20S, 209, 217. 

Carohnas, the founding of, 147-150; name, 
147- 

"Carpet-bag governments," 442, 443, 447, 
452. 

Carr, Dabney, 200. 

Carteret, Sir G., 137. 

Cartier, Jacques, 51, 54. 

Carver, John, 89. 

Cass, Lewis, 341, 342. 

Catawbas, 150. 

Catholics in Maryland, 127, 128. 

Cavaliers in Virginia, 76. 

Cavendish, Sir T., 62. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 423. 

Cemetery Ridge, 413, 414. 

Centennial'annivcrsaries, 449, 450. 

Central field of war in the Revolution, map 
of, 221. 

Cervera, Admiral, 475, 476. 

Champion's Hill, battle of, 411. 



Champlain, Samuel de, 53-55, 159; por- 
trait, 53. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 412. 

Chandler, Z., 452. 

Charles I., king of Great Britain, 74-76,86, 
91, 97, 106, 126, 189. 

Charles II., king of Great Britain, 75, 76, 
78, 100, 107-109, 112, 113, 139, 147, 182. 

Charles River, 86. 

Charleston, .S. C, settlements about, 147; 
life in, 150; attacked by Frencli and .Span- 
iards, 166 ; British expeditions against, 
210, 21 r, 235, 240 ; customs troubles, 324. 

Charlestown, Mass., settlement of, 93. 

Charter Oak, 114. 

Chase, .Salmon P., 354, 443. 

Cliatham, Earl of. See Pitt, William. 

Chattanooga, held by Rosecrans, 422 ; bat- 
tle of, 423. 

Chauncey, Commodore Isaac, 296. 

Cherokees, 8, 150. 

Chesapeake Bay, 31. 

Chesapeake, frigate, searched by Leopard, 
285 ; captured by Shannon, 292. 

Chicago, 328, 482, viewof, in 1832,329. 

Chickahominy River, 394. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 422. 

Chickasaws, 8. 

Chili, 10, 40; trouble with, 465. 

China, 26 ; reached by ship through the 

Indian Ocean, 35 ; relations of the United 

.States with, 462, 463. 
Chinese immigration, 462, 463. 
Chinese junks, 19. 
Chipango, or Japan, 26. 
Chippewa, battle of, 299. 
Chippewas, g. 
Choctaws, 8. 
Christison, Wenlock, 108. 

Cipango. See Japan. 
Circumnavigation of globe, first, 36. 
Cities, population of, 262. 

Civil Rights Bill, 442. 

Civil service reform, 457. 

Civil War, the, 375-42S ; cost of, 417, 441 ; 

maps to illustrate, 389, 400. 
Claiborne, William, 127. 
Clans and tribes, Indian, 6, 7. 
Clarendon, Earl of. See Hyde, Edward 
Clark, Alvan, 499. 
Clark, George Rogers, his conquest of the 

Northwest, 234; map, 233. 
Clark, William, expedition with Lewis, 283. 
Clay, Henry, 288, 315, 316, 324, 325, 332, 

33i<, 352. 354; portrait, 322. 

Clermont, Fulton's steamboat, 312; picture, 
,3>2- 
Cleveland, Grover, his presidency, 458-463, 

467-471 ; portrait, 459. 
Cliff dwellers, .0. 
Clinton, De Witt, 289. 
Clinton, George, 284. 

Clinton, Sir H., 210, 231-233, 235,237,240. 
Coddingtnn, William, 99. 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 423. 



522 



INDEX. 



Coligny, 51, 63. 

Colleges founded before the Revolution, 
495- 

Colombia, and the Panama Canal, 4S0. 

Colonies, old-fashioned method of treating 
them, 181 ; trade laws restricting, 181, 182. 

Columbia, British, 334 

Columbia River, discovery of, 283. 

Columbia, ship, 283. 

Columbus, Chiistopher, takes part in ex- 
ploring voyages on the African coast, 25 ; 
conceives the idea of reaching Asia by 
sailing westward, 26, 27 ; obtains aid from 
P'erdinand and Isabella, and sails from 
Palos, 27; his ships, picture, 28; dis- 
covers land, 28 ; portrait, 29 ; second and 
third voyages of Columbus, 29, 30; fourth 
voyage, death, 31. 

Columbus, Ky.,3Si, 382. 

" Committees of correspondence," 200. 

Commons, House of, 72, 1S9, 192-195. 

Communism among Virginia settlers, 69, 70. 

Compromise tariff, 324. 

Compromise, the Crittenden, 370. 

Compromises of 1850, 3r2, 354. 

" Concentration " (in Cuba), 473, 474. 

Concord, battle of, 204, 205. 

Confederate capital, 379 

Confederate money and bonds, 421 

Confederate States of America, 370. 

Confederation, Articles of, 247, 253. 

Confederation of New England, 107. 

Congregational churches in colonies, 96. 

Congress, Albany, 187. 

Congress, Continental, 200, 203-205, 208- 
211, 220, 227, 228, 237; had no power to 
tax the people, 235, 247. 

Congress, powers of, 254, 269, 271, 277, 282. 

Congress, representation in, 192. 

Congress, Stamp Act, 191. 

Congress, warship, 3S6, 387. 

Congresses, Provincial, 200, 204. 

Connecticut, beginnings of, 100-102 

Connecticut River, discovery of, 43. 

Constellation, frigate, 276, 277. 

Constitution, frigate, 289, 292 ; captures 
Guerriere, 289 ; captures Java, 201 ; cap- 
tures Cyane and Levant, 292 ; picture of, 
290 

Constitution of the United States adopted, 
256; i3tli amendment to, 442; i5thatnend- 
ment to, 447 . 

Constitutional Union party, 31'iS. 

Continental Congress at Philadelphia, 
Sept., 1774, 203. 

Continental currency, 235-237 

" Contraband of war," 403. 

Convention for nominating president, 323. 

Convention, the Federal, 253. 

Convention, the Hartford, 300, 310. 

Conway Cabal, 231. 

Cook, James, 283. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 17, 337. 

Copley, John Singleton, 504 ; portrait, 505. 
" Copperheads," 374. 
Corey, Giles, 165. 
Corinth, battle of, 406, 407. 



Cornwallis, Lord, 222, 235, 239-241 ; por- 
trait, 222; forced to surrender at York- 
town, 241. 

Coronado, F. de, 44. 

Cotton, demand for, 314, 374; field, picture 
of, 267 ; plant, picture, 266, 

Cotton gin, 314. 

"Counterblast against tobacco," 70. 

Cowpens, battle of the, 239. 

" Cradle of Liberty,'' 197, 19S. 

Cranch, C. 1'., 503 

Craven, Governor, of South Carolina, de- 
feats the Indians, 150. 

Crawford, William, 316. 

" Credit Mobilier," 450. 

Creeks, 8, 299. 

Crittenden compromise, 370. 

Crittenden, John Jordan, 370; his sons in 
the Civil War, 381. 

Cromwell, C)liver, 107, 127 ; portrait, 75. 

Cropsey, J. F., 505. 

Cross Keys, battle of, 398. 

Crown Point, taken by Ethan Allen, 205. 

Crusades, 22. 

Cuba, 28, 174; southern attempts to cap- 
ture, 358; rebellion against Spain, 473; 
liberated by the U. S., 473-477. 

Culpeper, Lord, 76. 

Gulp's Hill, 415 

Cumberland, Army of the, 388. 

Cumberland Gap, 381, 3S8. 

Cumberland River, importance of, in the 
Civil War, 382, 388. 

Cumberland, warship, 386. 

Currency, 467, 471. 

Gushing, Caleb, 462. 

Cushman, Charlotte. 507. 
Custer, G., defeated by the Sioux, 450. 
Custom house duties, 300. 
Cuttyhunk, house built by Gosnold on, 85. 
Cyane, British frigate captured by the 
Constitution, 292. 

Dakotas become states, 463. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 69, 70. 

Eiallas, battle of, 425. 

Dana, J. D., 500. 

Dare, Virginia, first American child of Eng- 
lish parents, 63. 

" Dark horse.'" 338, 353. 

Davenport, John, 104, 109. 

Dav',s, David, 453. 

Davis, Jefferson, 354, 370; portrait, 369, 
376, T'll- 

Davis Strait discovered, 42. 

Decatur, Stephen, 290, 291. 

Decimal currency, 2S0. 

Declaration of Independence, 209, 210, 216, 
280. 

Declaration of Rights made at Philadel- 
phia, 204. 

Dedliam, furniture made at, 263. 

Deerfield, Mass., 165. 

Del.iware, beginnings of, 132; annexed to 
New Netherland, 132, 133 ; proprietor- 
ship given to Wilham Penn, 141 ; legisla- 
ture separate after 1702, 141. 



INDEX. 



523 



Delaware, Lord, 69 

Delaware River, discovery of, 43 ; crossing 
of, by Wabhington, 221, 222. 

Delftshaven, SS. 

Democratic government, loi. 

Democratic party, 274, 319, 33S, 365, 36S, 
470, 471. 

Democratic-Republican party, 274, 319. 

Detroit, 167, 273; surrendered, 294; recov- 
ered, 299. 

Dewey, Admiral George, 475, 477. 

Dighton Rock, 21. 

Dingley tariff, 472. 

Dinwiddle, Robert, 16S. 

Domesticated animals, 7 

Dorchester Heights, occupied by General 
Washington, 209 

Dorchester, settlement of, 93 ; dissatisfac- 
tion with the government, and emigration 
of many to Connecticut, loi, 102. 

Dorr's Rebellion, 332. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 35S, 359 ; portrait, 
359 ; debate with Lincoln, 366, 367, 370, 

378- 
Dover, town of, 99. 
Drafting, and Draft Riots, 421. 
Drainage, area of discovery limited by, 158. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 60, 62. 



Dred Scott case, 364, 365. 

Dudley, Joseph, 113, 115. 

Dunmore, Lord, driven from Virginia, 209 

Durand, A. B., 505. 

Durham, N. H.," 162. 

Dustin, Hannah, i(>3, 164. 

Dutch East India Company, 130. 

Dutch in Connecticut, 100; in New Neth- 

erland, 129-134. 
Dutch Reformed Church, 135. 
Dyer, Mary, 108. 

Early, J., 423, 425. 

Early period of American history, i6o. 

Earth proved to be a globe, 25. 

East India Company, sends tea to America, 

201. 
East Indies, 26. 
East Jersey, 138. 
Easter, I^and of, 42 
Eastern Empire, conquered by the Turks, 

23- 

Edinburgh, threatened by John Paul Jones, 

234- 

Education in Mass. Bay Colony, 95, 96. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 502. 

Elastic Clause of our Constitution, 269, 282, 
320. 

El Caney, battle of, 476. 

Election of President, 274, 278, 323, 459. 

Elections, presidential, 256, 274, 278, 284, 
2^6, 2S9, 310, 316, 320, 323, 326, 331, 338, 
341. 342. 353, 362, 368, 369, 426, 444, 448, 
449, 451. 454. 458, 463. 466. 467. 470, 47', 
, 470, 4S2. 

Electoral Commission, 453, 460. 

Electoral count act, 460. 



Eliot, John, apostle to the Indians, no 

Elizabeth, queen of England, 59, 64, 70,86, 
87, 313 ; autograph, 64. 

Emancipation Group, picture of, 405. 

Emancipation of slaves, 402-405. 

Embargo act, 285, 2S6. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 337 ; portrait, 
336- 

Endicott, John, 91, 103. 

English attitude during the Civil War, 374, 
3 75, 385, 386. 

English navigators, 59. 

Episcopal worship forbidden in Mass. Bay 
Colony, 93, 113 ; established by Gov- 
ernor Andros, 1 14. 

Epochs of American History, books on, 
539-542. 

Equator first crossed by European naviga- 
tors, 23. 

" Era of good feeling," 309-313. 

Eric the Red, ig, 21. 

Ericsson, John, invents the screw propeller, 
32S, 387, 388; portrait, 387. 

Ericsson, Leif, 20. 

Erie Canal, 317, 318. 

Eries, 8. 

Essex, frigate, captures the Alert, 289. 

European complications in the Revolution- 
ary War, 231. 
Eutaw .Springs, battle of, 240 
P^vacuation of New York, 247. 
Ewfll, Gen. Richard S., 413. 
Exeter, N. H., founding of, 99. 
Expatriation, 447 

Fall River, Mass., strike, 482. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 394. 

Faneuil Hall, 19S; picture of, 198. 

Faneuil, Peter, igS. 

P'arragut, David, 292, 324, 391, 425. 

Far South, settlements in, map, 148. 

Federal Convention, 252, 253. 

Federal Union, early need of, 184, 188 ; 

secured under the Constitution, 256 ; more 

popular in the North than in the South, 

270; supported by Jackson, 323, 324; 

proved indestructible by the Civil War, 

441. 
Federalist, The, 503. 
Federalist party, 272-278, 282, 2S6, 300, 

310. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 27. 
Fifteenth Amendment, 447. 
" Fifty-four forty or fight," 334. 
Filibustering expeditions, 353, 35S. 
Fillmore, Millard, his presidency, 333 ; 

portrait, 353, 362. 
Financial difficulties after the Revolution, 

268, 269. 
First permanent French settlement, 53. 
Fisheries in American waters, 50. 
Five Forks, battle of, 427. 
Five Nations, The, 8, 9, 54, 55, i()2, 165, 

166. See also Six Nations. 
Flag, American, first hoisted, 227 ; origin of, 

22S. 
Flags, American and English, picture, 228. 
Flaraborough Head, 234. 



524 



INDEX. 



Florida, discovery of, 31 ; name, 42 ; given 
to England, 174, 247; bought by United 
States, 310, 311; admitted to Union, 

339- 
Floyd, John, 324. 
Foote, Commodore Andrew H., 389. 

Fort Crevecoeur, 156, 157. 

Fort Hearborn, captured by Indians, 294. 

Fort Donelson, 388, 389. 

Fort Diiquesne, 169, 170, 173 ; becomes 

Fort Pitt, 173. 
Fort Edward, 173, 224, 225. 
Fort Erie, 299. 
Fort Fisher, capture of, 425. 
Fort Henry, 388, 389. 
Fort Loyal, 162. 
Fort Mimms, massacre at, 299. 
Fort Moultrie, battle of, 210, 211. 
Fort Nassau, 130. 
Fort Necessity, 169. 
Fort Niagara, 173. 
Fort Stanvvix, 226, 227. 
Fort Sumter, holds out against rebels, 370 ; 

Buchanan's action, 375, 376; surrender 

of the fort, 376, 377. 
Fort Warren, 3S5. 
Fort Washington, capture of, 219. 
Fort Wayne, battle with Indians near, 271. 
Fort William Henry, 172. 
Fortress Monroe, 403, 42S. 
Foster, Daniel, 357. 
" F'ountain of Youth," — Juan Ponce de 

Leon's search, 42. 
Fourteenth Amendment, 442. 
" Fourth Part," 34. 
Fox, Charles, 194. 
France, alliance with, 231 ; quarrels with, 

275-277, 287, 28S. 
Francis I., king of France, 50, 51. 
Franklin, battle of, 426. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 184-188; portrait, 1S5; 

picture of his birthplace, 184 ; his printing 

press, 187; his Plan of Union, 187, 188. 
Frederica, battle of, 151. 
Frederick the Great, 171. 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 412. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 442. 
Freeman's Farm, battle of, 230. 
Freemasonry, 323. 
Free-Soil party, 342, 353. 
Fremont, John C, 339, 362,393,396-398, 

403, 426. 
French aid in the Revolutionary War, 222, 

223, 231, 232, 235, 240. 

French in America ; discoveries, map of, 

52, 140, 141, 155-159; conflict with the 

English, 159-175. 
French names of places in the United 

States, 155. 
French Revolution, 272, 274. 
Friction matches, 328, 329. 
Frobisher, Martin, 62. 
Frolic, British sloop, captured by the Wasp, 

290. 
Front Royal, battle of, 396. 
Frontenac, Count, 161-166; his autograph, 

i6i. 



Fugitive Slave Law, 350, 353-357, 402, 403. 
Fulton, Robert, his steamboat, 312. 
Fur trade in America, 53, 54, 100, 130, 131, 
133, IS5> i59i 444- 



Gage, Thomas, 203-206. 

Gama, Vasco da, 31, 32. 

Gardiner's Island, 137. 

Garfield, J. A., elected president, 454 ; por- 
trait, 455. _ 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 335 ; portrait, 335. 

Gaspee, schooner, 199. 

Gates, Horatio, 227, 230, 231, 235. 

Gates, Sir T., 68, 69. 

" Gateway of the West," 169. 

General Court, 107. 

Genet, Citizen, 272. 

Genoa, 23, 25, 30. 

Geography, early text-books on, 23. 

George II., king of Great Britain, 151,167. 

George III., king of Great Britain, 192- 
196, 199-201, 20S, 2og, 249; portrait, 192. 

Georgia, beginnings of, 150-152; overrun 
by British, 234; recovered, 246. 

Germans in Pennsylvania, 140, 141 ; in 
North Carolina, 149; in Georgia, 151. 

German troops in British service, 20S, 225. 

Germantown, battle of, 229, 230. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 413-416. 

Gettysburg speech of President Lincoln, 
facsimile, 41S, 419. 

Ghent, treaty of, 301. 



Goffe, William, 109. 

Gold in Mexico and Peru, 41 ; in California, 
34°- 

Gomez, Estevan, 43. 

Gorges, Sir F., 85, 97, 112. 

Gorton, Samuel, 99. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 85. 

Gourgues, Dominique de, 52. 

Graff enried, Baron de, 149. 

Grand Canon of the Colorado River, 44. 

Grand Gulf, 407, 410, 41 1. 

Grants to London and Plymouth Compa- 
nies, map, 66. 

Grant, Ulysses S., in the Civil War, 3S2, 
388-390, 407, 409-412, 416, 422, 423, 427, 
428; portrait, 424 ; presidency, 444-453. 

Grasse, Count de, 240. 

Gray, Robert, 283. 

Great Lakes, discovery and exploration of, 

54. 156-158- 

(Greater New York, 477. 

Greeley, Horace, 449. 

Greenbacks, 417, 420. 

Green Bay, Wis., 157. 

Green Mountains, Revolutionary soldiers 
collected in, 225 ; troubles in, after the 
Revolution, 249. 

Greene, Nathanael, portrait, 238 ; his south- 
ern campaigns, 239, 240. 

Greenland, Norse colony in, ig. 

Grierson^s cavalry, 411. 

Griffin, the first vessel on Great Lakes, 155. 



INDEX. 



525 



Groton, Mass., 162. 

Guerriire, British frigate, captured by the 

Constitution, 28g. 
Guiana, James I.'s expedition to, 65. 
Guilford, battle of, 239. 
Guilford, Conn., founding of, 105. 
Guinea, negroes brought from, 59. 

Hackensack, 220. 
Haines Bluff, 409-411. 

Hale, John Parker, 353. 

Half-civilized Indians, 9. 

Half Moon, Hudson's ship, 130. 

Halleck, H. W., 399, 413. 

Hamilton, Alexander, loi, 252; portrait, 

254 ; member of the Federal Convention, 

255 ; his financial policy, 268-270 ; killed 
in a duel, 284. 

Hamilton, Henry, British commander at 

Detroit, 234. 
Hampton, N. H., founding of, 100. 
Hancock, John, 204 ; chosen president of 

the Continental Congress, 205; his house 

in Boston, picture, 263. 
Hancock, W. S., 413, 454. 
Harlem Heights, battle of, 219. 
Harmar, Josiah, defeated by Indians, 271. 
Harper's Ferry, John Brown's raid, 367, 

368; captured by " Stonewall Jackson," 

401. 
Harpsichord, picture of, 264. 

Harrison, Benjamin, his presidency, 463- 

467 ; portrait, 464. 
Harrison, Gen. W. H., at Tippecanoe, 294 ; 

succeeds Hull, 296; enters Canada, 298, 

299 ; nominated for president, 326 ; 

elected president, death, 331 ; portrait, 

331- 
Harte, Bret, 503. 
Hartford, 100, 102. 
Hartford Convention, 300, 310. 
Harvard College, founding of, 96, 495 ; 

early view of, 96. 
Harvard, John, 96. 
Harvey, .Sir John, 74. 
Hatteras Inlet, 391. 
Haverhill, Mass., 162, 165. 
Hawaiian Islands, annexed to the U. S , 

477- 
Hawkins, Sir John, 59-61. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 337 ; portrait, 336. 
Hayes, R. B., 452, 453 ; his presidency, 

453, 454 ; portrait, 453 
Hayne, Robert Y. , 322. 
Hayti, 28, 29. 
Heights of Abraham, 174. 

Henry IV., king of F'rance, 52, 53. 
Henry Vn., king of England, 30. 
Henry VIII., king of England, 86. 
Henry, Joseph, 338. 

Henry, Patrick, 190, 191, 195; portrait, 191. 
Henry the Navigator, 23. 
Herkimer, Nicholas, 226, 227. 
Hessians. See German troops. 
Hiawatha, 17. 
Hieroglyphic writing, 12. 



Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 356,503. 

Hill, Ambrose Powell, 413. 

Hindustan, 26, 31, 32, 167. 

History of the World, Raleigh's, 64. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 240. 

Holland, Pilgrims in, 88. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 337; portrait, 

336. 
Holy Alliance, 311. 

Honduras, 31; filibustering expedition 

against, 35S. 
Hood, J. B., 426. 
Hooker, Joseph, 412, 413. 
Hooker, Thomas, loi, 102. 
Hopkins, Stephen, 199. 
Hornet, sloop, captures Peacock, 291. 
House of Commons, first, action in regard 

to taxation, 189. 
House of Representatives, 254. 
Houses, Indian, 5, 6. 
Houses of farmers in i8th century, 264, 

265. 
Houston, Samuel, 337 ; portrait, 338. 
Howard, Gen. O. O., 413. 
Howard, Lord, 60. 
Howe, Elias, 490. 

Howe, Lord, 218 ; portrait, 219. 
Howe, Sir W., 206, 209, 218-222, 224, 229- 
231 ; portrait, 218. 

Hubbardton, battle of, 225. 

Hudson Bay country, English claim estab- 
lished, 166. 

Hudson, Henry, 130. 

Hudson River, discovery of, 43, 51, 130; 
map of, 130; military importance of, 216, 
217, 224. 

Huguenots in Carolinas, 148, 149 ; in Flor- 
ida, 5t. 

Hull, Isaac, 289 ; portrait, 289. 

Hull, Gen. William, attempts invasion of 
Canada, surrenders, 294 ; succeeded by 
Harrison, 296. 

Hunter, Gen. David, 403. 

Huron, Lake, discovery of, 54. 
Huron mission, 54, 155. 
Hurons, 8. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 99, 107. 
Hutchinson, Thomas, 249. 
Hyde, Edward, 147. 

Iberville, 162, 167 

Icelandic Chronicles, ig, 21. 

Iceland, settlement of, 19. 

Idaho, admitted as a .state, 463. 

Illinois, admitted to Union in 1818,313. 

Illinois Indians, 157. 

Illinois River, discovery of, 155. 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 443. 
Impressment of American seamen, 273, 

285. 
Incas, 12, 13. 
Indentured servants, 71. 
Indian corn, 5, 95. 
Indian face, typical, picture, s. 



526 



INDEX. 



Indian Ocean, 31 ; first ship sailed through, 

35- 

Indian Rights Association, 450. 

Indian Territory, 334, 451. 

Indiana admitted to the I'nion, 313. 

Indians, why so called, 2 ; appearance, 
character, religion, and manner of life, 
2-14; various tribes of, 8-11; half-civil- 
ized Indians of Mexico, and Central and 
South America, 10, 32, 40, 41 ; Indian 
troubles in Virginia, 77 ; in New Eng- 
land, 102-104, 'lOi i'2; in New Nether- 
land, 132; in the Carolinas, 149, 150; the 
Five Nations make war on Canada, 162; 
Indians unite with French in war against 
the English, 162-173; Pontiac's war, 175, 
176; Indian troubles during the Revolu- 
tion, 233, 246; on the western frontier, 
1790-1795, 270-272; map to illustrate, 
271 ; during war of 1812, 294, 296, 299; 
Seminole war, 310; Sioux wars, 406, 
450; Modoc war, 450; Indian Rights 
Association, 450. 

Industrial distress in England promotes ex- 
ploration of America, 65. 

Industrial exhibitions : Atlanta and New 
Orleans, 457. 

Ingoldsby, Richard, 136. 

Insurgente, L', frigate, 276. 

Internal improvements, 317-319. 

International copyright, 465. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 462. 

Iowa, admitted to the Union, 339. 

" Ironclad Oath," 442, 44S. 

Iroquois, 8, 54; their hostility to the 
French, 55 ; their alliance with the 
Dutch, 132; attacked by Frfmtenac, if>5, 
166; their country ravaged by Sullivan, 
233 ; their houses, 5. 

Irrigation, 10. 

Irving, Washington, 337 ; portrait, 336. 

Island Number Ten, 392. 

luka, battle of, 406. 

Jackson, Andrew, campaign against the 
Indians, 299 ; defends New Orleans, 300 ; 
elected president, 320; his administra- 
tions, 320-326 ; portrait, 321. 

Jackson, battle of, 411. 

lackson, Charles, 500. 

Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), 379, 
394-401, 412 ; portrait, 394. 

James I., king of Great Britain, 64, 65, 70, 
73,74,88., 

James II., king of Great Britain, 114, 115, 

•34. 135, '6°- 

James, Henry, 503. 

James River, Spanish colony on, 43 ; Eng- 
lish colony on, 69. 

Jamestown, founding of, 67-70; burning 
of, during Bacon's Rebellion, 77 ; view 
of its ruins, 73. 

Japan, 26. 

Java, British frigate, captured by the Con- 
stitution, 291. 
Jay, John, 247, 273, 274; portrait, 273. 



Jefferson, Thomas, 73, loi, 210, 255, 269 ; 
portrait, 254 ; his personal characteris- 
tics, 279, 280; vice-president, 274; his 
presidency, 278-286. 

Jesuit missionaries, 54, 155. 

Johnson, Andrew, 426 ; presidency, 429- 
444 ; portrait, 443. 

Johnson, Sir Jonn, 223. 

Johnson, Sir William, 172, 176, 223. 

Johnston, A. S., 390. 

Johnston, Joseph E., 379, 383; portrait, 

3S4, 394. 4". 416, 425, 427, 428. 
J'liet, 155. 
Jones, John Paul, 234; portrait, 234. 

Kalb, John, 223. 

Kansas, disorders in, 360, 361. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 358-361. 

Karlsefni, Thorfinn, 20. 

Kaskaskia, 111., 167. 

Kearney, Philip, 339. 

Kearsarge, frigate, sinks cruiser Alabama, 

425. 
Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 425. 
Kennebec River, 67, 86. 

Kent Island, 127. 

Kentucky, beginnings of, 233 ; growth of, 
251 ; resolutions, 277, 310 ; in ihe Civil 
^War, 381-383, 3SS, 406. 
Kernstown, battle of, 394, 395. 
Kidd, William, the pirate, 137. 
King George's War, 167. 
King Philip's War, 110-112. 
King, Rufus, 310. 
King's Chapel in Boston, 114. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 238, 239. 
Kings, Indian, 12. 
King William's War, 160, 165. 
Kirk, J. F., 504 

Kitchen of Whittier homestead, 265. 
Know-nothing party, 361, 362, 368. 
Kosciusko, Gen. Thaddeus, 223. 
" Ku Klux Klan," 448. 

Labor troubles, 454, 469, 482. 
Labrador, 30, 43. 
Ladrone Islands, 477. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 222, 223, 240 ; por- 
trait, 223. 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 299. 

Lake Erie, importance of, in war of 1812, 
294, 296 ; battle of, 296-298. 

Lake George, battle of, 172. 

Lake Ontario, discovery of, 54 ; control of, 
gained by the French, 172. 

Langley, S. P., 497. 

La Plata, 34; colonies near, 41. 

La Salle, Robert de, 155-159; portrait, 
.56. _ 

I,aughing gas, 500. 

Lawrence, Capt. James, 202. 

Lawrence, Perry's flagship, 296, 298. 

Lawson, John, surveyor, 149. 

Le Boeuf, 168. 



INDEX. 



527 



Lecompton Constitution, 365. 

Lee, Charles, soldier of fortune in com- 
mand of half the American army, 220 ; 
portrait, 220 ; treasonable act, 221 ; be- 
havior at Monmouth, 232 ; expelled from 
the army, 232. 

Lee, Henry, 239. 

Lee, Robert E., 379, 39S-402, 406, 412-416, 
423; portrait, 393, 425, 427. 

Lee, R. H., 210. 

Legal Tender Act, 417. 

Leisler, Jacob, 135, 136, 162; autograph, 
'35- 

Lenape, g. 

Leopard, frigate, 285. 

Lery, Baron de, 50. 

Levant, British sloop, captured by the Con- 
stitution, 292. 

Lewis and Clark, expedition of, 283. 

Lexington, battla of, 204, 205. 

Leyden, Pilgrims at, 88. 

Liberal Republicans, 448,451. 

Liberty party, 338. 

Library of Reference for American History, 

Minimum, 545, 546. 
" Light-horse Harry," 239. 

Lincoln, Abraham, early life, 366; debate 
with Douglas, 367 ; his presidency, 36S- 
429; portrait, 373. 

Lincoln, Benjamin, 235, 250. 

Line of Demarcation, 32, 33, 52. 

Literature, recent American, 503, 504. 

Little Belt, surrender of, 288. 

Little Round Top, 414-416. 

Llama, 13. 

Locke, John, 147. 

" Locofoco " party, 329. 

London Company, 65, 85 ; overthrow of, 
74. 124. '25- 

" Lone Star State," 337. 

Longfellow, H. W., 206, 337, 445 ; portrait, 

336- 
Long Island, battle of, 218. 
Long Parliament, the, 74. 
Longstreet, J. I?., 414, 422. 
Lookout Mountain, 422. 
Lopez, N., 353. 

Lords proprietary, 126, 128, 129, 134. 
Louis XIV., king of F'rance, his designs 

upon New York, 135; Mississippi valley 

taken possession of in his name, 15S, 159 ; 

autograph, facsimile, 160. 
Louisburg, first capture of, 167 ; restored to 

France, 167; second capture of, 173. 
Louisiana purchase, 351 ; maps illustrating, 

280, 281 ; Exposition, 4S1, 482. 
Louisiana, state, admitted to the Union, 

Louisiana territory, 158; ceded to Spain, 
175 ; ceded back to France, 281 ; sold to 
United States, 282. 

Lowell, J. R., 445; portrait, 445. 

Luiidy's Lane, battle of, 299. 

Lyon, Nathaniel, 380, 381 ; portrait, 380. 



Macdonough, Commodore Thomas, 299; 

portrait, 299. 
Macedonian, British frigate, captured by 

frigate United States, 290. 



Mackinaw, capturea oy inoians, 294. 

MacMonnies, Frederick, 505. 

Madison, James, portrait, 255 ; his presi- 
• dency, 2S6-301. 

Magellan, 35, 36, 42 : portrait, 35. 

Magellan, Strait of, 36. 

Maine (battleship), 474. 

Maine, state of, beginnings of, 97, 112 ; ad- 
mitted to Union, 315; boundary dispute, 
333- 

Maize, 5, 95. 

Malacca, 31. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 399. 

Mandans, their houses, 6. 

Manhattan Island, occupied by the Dutch, 
129-131 ; view of, in i6th century, 129. 

Manila, 475, 477. 

Manufactories in England, 314. 

Manufactures prohibited in American colo- 
nies, 182. 

Maracaibo, Gulf of, 32. 

Marietta, Ohio, foundation of, 261. 

Marion, Francis, 235; portrait, 235. 

Market-gardening, 457. 

Marquette, 155. 

Marshall, John, portrait, 255. 
Martha's Vineyard, 85. 

Mary, Queen of England, wife of William 
III., 160. 

Maryland, founding of, 124-129; character 
of, 128, 129; position of, in regard to the 
Northwest Territory, 251 ; in the Civil 
War, 281, 400, 401. 

" Maryland, my Maryland," 400. 

Maskoki, 8. 

Mason and Dixon's line, 142, 357, 503. 

Mason, J. M., 385. 

Mason, John, conqueror of the Pequots, 
103, 104. 

Mason, John, founder of New Hampshire, 
97) 99i '°°> "2. 

Massachusetts Assembly, circular letter of, 
ig6, 197. 

Massachusetts Bay colony, 91-93, 105. 

Massachusetts Bay, Company of, 91-93, 
106, 125. 

M.assachusetts, its first charter, 91, 92; an- 
nulled by Charles II., 113; its second 
charter granted by William III., 115, 
116; annulled by George IIL, 203. 

Massasoit, 90. 

Matagorda Bay, entered by La S.tlle, 
159- 

Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 500. 

Maximilian in Mexico, 444. 

Mayas, 1 1. 

Mayflower, the ship, 89. 

McClellan, George B., 384, 392-402; por- 
trait, 392, 426. 

McClure, Sir Robert, 42. 

McCormick reaper, 328. 



528 



INDEX. 



McDowell, Irwin, 383, 393-399. 
McDowell, village of, in the Civil War, 

396. 
McKinley tariff, 464, 468. 
McKinley, William, his presidency, 470- 

477 ; portrait, 472. 
Meade, Gen. George Gordon, 413, 415, 

423 ; portrait, 424. 
Mcares, John, 2S3. 
Medicine men, 7. 
Meeting-house, the New England, 94. 

Mela, Pomponius, geographer, 24, 34 ; his 

idea of the world, map, 25 
Memphis, battle of, 392. 
Menendez, Pedro de, 46, 51, 52. 
Merrimac and Monitor, 3S6-388. 
Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 475, 477. 
Mexican War, 339, 340. 
Mexico, city of, captured, 340. 
Mexico, II ; conquest of, 40, 41 ; mines in, 

62; revolt of Spanish colonies, 311; 

French in, 443, 444. 
Miantonomo, 1 10. 

Micliigan admitted to the Union, 334. 
Middle Colonies, settlement of, map, 126 ; 

in 1690, map, 142. 
Middle period of American history, 161 ; 

its end, 256. 
Milborne, Ja«ob, 135, 136. 
Miles, Gen. Nelson A., 476. 
Milford, Conn., founding of, 105. 
" Millions for defence," 275. 
Mills Bill, 459. 
Mill Spring, battle of, 388. 
Minot house in Dorchester, picture, 95. 
Minuit, Peter, 131. 
Missionary Ridge, 422. 
Mississippi Question, 251, 253. 
Mississippi River, discovery of, 45, 155, 

158. . 
Mississippi, state, admitted to the Union, 

?'■!• 
Mississippi Valley, importance of, in Civil 

War, 407, 40S. 
Missouri and Kentucky in Civil War, 381 ; 

situation in 1S61-62, map, 3S2. 
Missouri Compromise, 315, 317, 351, 352, 

354. 358, 359. 3fM, 365. 37o. 
Missouri saved for the Union, 379, 380. 
Missouri, state, admitted to the Union, 315 ; 

in the Civil War, 379-380. 
Mobile Bay, 43; battle of, 425. 
Mobile, founding of, 167. 
Modoc War, 450. 
Mohawks, 54. 
Mohegans, 9, 103, no, 112. 
Money, continental, facsimile of, 236. 
Monitor and Merrimac, 386-3SS. 
Monk, George, 147. 
Monmouth, battle of, 232. 
Monroe Doctrine, 311, 312, 472. 
Monroe, James, his presidency, 310-316; 

portrait, 310. 
Montana, 463. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 172-174; portrait, 

174. 
Montfort, Simon de, 1S9. 
Montgomary, Richard, 208, 209. 



Montijos, Admiral, 475. 

Montreal, 51, 156-15S, 162, 208,217. »• 

Monts, Sieur de, 53. ■ 

Moquis, 10, 44. ■ 

Morgan, Daniel, portrait, 239. 

Morgan, William, mysterious disappearance 
of, 323. 

Mormons, 333, 469. 

Morrill tariff, 459. 

Morris, Robert, 237. 

Morristown, N. J., occupied by Washing- 
ton, 222. 

Morse, S. F. B,, 338. 

Morton, William, 498. 

Miitley, J. L., portrait, 446. 

Moultrie, William, 210, 211; portrait, 
211. 

Mound-builders, 13, 14. 

IVfount Desert, named by Champlain, 53. 

Mount Vernon, Va., picture, 246 

" Mugwumps," 258. 

Mummies, Peruvian, 13. 

Murfree, Mary N., 501. 

Music in America, 506. 

Mystic River, Indian fight near, 103. 

Names of the states explained, 530-538. 

Napoleon I., 281, 2S5, 287, 2S8, 299. 

Napoleon III., 374, 443, 444. 

Narragansett Bay, 43, 90. 

Narragansett swamp fight, 112. 

Narragansetts, 9, 90, 98, 103, 110-112. 

Narvaez, Panfilo de, 43. 

Nashville, battle of, 426. 

Nasmyth steam hammer, 328. 

National bank, 269, 320, 330, 331, 332. See 

also Bank of the United Slates. 
National Bank Act, 420. 
National conventions for nomination of 

presidential candidates, 323, 470. 
National Democrats, 470, 471 
National domain, 314, 315. 
National Republicans, 319, 320, 323, 324, 

325. 

Nature worship, 7. 

Naumkeag, gi 

Nauvoo, 111., settled by Mormons, 333. 

Naval warfare, revolution in, 386-388. 

Navy, The, in the Civil War, 390, 391. 

Neff, Mary, 164. 

Netherlands, revolt of, 60. 

New Amsterdam, 131, 133, 134. 

Newark, N. J., settlement of, 137, 138. 

New Bern, founding of, 149. 

New Brunswick, settled by American Toiies 

after the Revolution, 248, 249. 
Newburgh, N. Y., 247. 

New England Confederacy, 107. 

New England, reference to map of, by John 
Smith, 86. 

New England under Sir E. Andros, map, 
"4. 

Newfoundland, its fisheries, 50; visited by 
Lord Baltimore, 125; English claim es- 
tablished, 166. 

New France, maps of, 157, 158 



INDEX. 



529 



New Hampshire, beginnings of, 97,99, 100, 

112, 115. 
New Haven colony, 105, 106, 109 ; annexed 

to Connecticut, 110. 
New Jersey, beginnings of, 137, 138. 
New London, attacked by Arnold, 240, 

241. 
New Mexico, 339, 352, 353. 
New Netherland, 131-134, 137. See also 

New York. 
New Orleans, picture of, in 1719, 166; 

founding of, 167, ceded to Spain, 175; 

battle of, 300; in Civil War, 391. 
Newport, R. I., founding of, 99 ; Sullivan's 

attempt to capture, 232. 
New style and old style, 546-550. 
New Sweden, early name of Delaware, 

132. 
, Newtown, early name of Cambridge, 96, 

101. 
New York city, settled by the Dutch, 100; 

named in honor of the Duke of York, 

134; occupied b%r General Howe, 219; 

temporary seat of national government, 

256; size of, in 1790,262; in 1830,328; 

Greater New York, 477. 
New York (state) named in honor of the 

Duke of York, 134 ; party strife in, 134- 

136 ; map of, illustrating French War, 

.'7-- 
Niagara River, battle near, 295. 
Niagara, ship, 298. 
Nicaragua, filibustering expedition against, 

358- 
Nichols, Richard, 133. 
Nicholson, Francis, 134, 136. 
Nipmucks, ii i. 
Nizza, Marcos de, 44. 
Nominating conventions, 323. 
Non-intercourse Act, 286,287. 
Norfolk, Va., burned by the British, 209 
Norridgevvock, capture of, 167 
Norse ships, picture, 20. 
North America after peace of 1763, map, 

'75- 

North Carolina, beginnings of, 148, 149 ; 
insurrection in, 199 ; tlie Revolutionary 
War in, 209, 235. 

Northcastle, 220. 

North, Lord, 196, 216, 230, 231, 246; por- 
trait, ig6. 

Northmen, 19. 

North River, early name of the Hudson, 
130. 

North Virginia, old name for New Eng- 
land, 85, 86. 

Northwestern Territory, 251, 252. 

Northwest Passage, 42. 

Nova .Scotia, French colony in, 53 ; an- 
nexed to Massachusetts, 115; conquered 
by English, 166. 

Nullification, 278,280, 310, 321-324, 332. 



Oglethorpe, James, 150-152; portrait, 150. 

Ohio Company, 168. 

Ohio River, discovery of, 155. 

Ojibwas. See Chippewas, 

Old Colony, 105. 



" Old fronsides," 290, 291, 311. 

Old Saruni, 193. 

Old South Leaflets, 39. 

Old South Meeting-house, 114, 199, 202$ 

picture of, 202. 
Old style and new style, 546-550. 
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 508. 
Ontario, settled by American Tories after 

the Revolution, 248, 249. 
" Opposite World," 34. 
Orders in Council, 285, 288; revoked, 

289. 
Ordinance of 1787, 252, 314. 
Ordinance of Secession, 369. 
Oregon country, division of, 334. 
Oregon, exploration of, 2S2, 2S3. 
" Oregon question," 333, 334, 351. 
Orinoco River, 30. 
Oriskany, battle of, 227. 
Ostend Manifesto, 358. 
Oswego, captured by Montcalm, 172. 
Otis, James, 183. 
Ottawas, 9. 

Pacific cable, 481. 

Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 35 ; crossed by 

Magellan, 35, 36. 
Paducah, 381, 382. 



Pakenham, Sir Edward, 300. 

Palisades on Wall St., picture, 131. 

Palmer, John ]\L, 471. 

Palmerston, Lord, 375. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 339. 

Palos, 27. 

Panama, 31, 481. 

Pan-American Congress, 464. 

Panic of 1S37, 330; of 1873, 449. 

Paper money, 236, 250, 330, 417, 420, 449. 

Paraguay, foundation of, 41. 

Paris, treaty of (1763), 174 ; (1783), 246, 

247> 333- 
Parishes and townships, 94. 
Parker, Alton B., 4S2. 
Parker, Theodore, 335; portrait, 335. 
Parkman, Francis, 445 ; portrait, 446. 
Parris, .Samuel, 164, 165. 
Parsons, T. W., 503. 
Parties, political, origin of, 269. 
Patent Office at Washington, 328. 
Patroons, 131, 333. 
Patterson, Robert, 383. 
Paxton, Charles, 182. 

Peace conference of 1861, in Washington, 

37°- 
" Peace Democrats," 374. 
Peacock, British brig, sunk by the Hornet, 

291. 



Pemberton, J. C, 411. 

Pendleton, G. H., 457. 

Penn, William, 138-142 ; portrait, 138; au- 
tograph, 130; wampum belt, 140; house 
in Philadelphia, 141. 

Pennsylvania, beginnings of, 138-142 ; in- 
vaded by Lee's army, 412, 413. 



530 



INDEX. 



Pennsylvania Gazette, edited by Franklin, 

1S7, 188. 
Pennsylvania, University of, 187. 
Penobscot River, S6. 
Pepperell, Sir William, 167. 
Pequot fort, plan of, 104. 
Pequot War, the, 102-104. 
Pequots, g. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard, 296, 298 ; facsimile 
of his dispatch to Harrison, 298. 

Perryville, battle of, 406. 

" Personal liberty " jaws, 355, 371. 

Pern, ancient, 12, 13; conquest of, 41; 
mines, 41, 62. 

Petersburg, 423, 427. 

Philadelphia, Congress at, 203-210. 

Philadelphia, founding of, 140: in the Rev- 
olution, 220, 222, 229, 231, 237; size of, 
in 1/90, 262. 

Philadelphia Library, founded by Frankhn, 
.87. 

Philip II., of Spain, 60. 

Philip, or Metacom, son of Massasoit, his 
mark, iii, 112. 

Philippine Islands, 36, 174,475-477; insur- 
rection, 47S-4S0; civil government in, 
480; cable to, 481. 

Phillips, Wendell, 335 ; portrait, 335. 

Phipps, Sir William, 164. 

Pickens, Andrew, 235. 

Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, 415, 416; 

picture of, 415. 
Pierce, Franklin, his presidency, 353-362 ; 

portrait, 354. 
Pilgrini Fathers, 88-91 ; true date of their 

landing at Plymouth, 549. 
Pilgrim relics, pictures of, go. 
Pilgrims, homes of, map, 88. 
Pinckney, C. C, 284, 2S6. 
Pinzon, Vincent, 30-32. 
Piracy, 137, 283, 284. • 
Pisa, 23. 

Piscataqua River, settlements near, 97. 
Pitcairn. Major, 205. 
Pitt, WiUiani, Earl of Chatham, 171, 172, 

191-195; portrait, 171. 
Pittsburgh, the Gateway of the West, i6g, 

.173- 
Pittsburg Landing, 390. 
Plan of Union, Franklin's, 187. 
Platte country, 358, 
Platte River, 45. 
Plymouth colony, founding of, 89-gi, 105; 

annexed to Massachusetts, 115. 
Plymouth Company, 65-67, 85, 86, 8g, gi, 

^'25- 

Plymouth, town of, 86. 

Pocahontas, 67, 68. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 337. 

Poems about American history, 542-545 

Polk, James Knox, his presidency, 33S- 

342 , portrait, 339 
Polk, Gen. Leonidas, 381, 382. 
Polygamy in tlie U. S., 333, 469, 470. 
Ponce de Leon, Juan, 41, 42. 
Pontiac's War, 175, 176. 



Poor Richard's Almanack, facsimile of 
page, 1 86. 

Pope, John, 391, 39c, 399. 

Popliam, Sir John, 85. 

Population of the U S., 261,312; west- 
ward movement of, 318 ; influx of immi- 
gration, 328; number in 1790, in i860, 
371 ; in 1870, 444. 



Populists, 467, 470, 471. 

Port Gibson, 411. 

Port Hudson, 412, 416. 

Port Republic, battle of, 398. 

Port Royal, N. S., French settlement at, 

53- 
Port Royal, S. C., 391. 
Porter, David, the elder, 289, 292 ; the 

younger, 3gi ; portrait, 392. 
Porto Rico, occupied by U. S. soldiers, 

476. 477- 
Porlo Seguro, 33. 

Portsmouth, R I., founding of, 99. 
Portugal, 31-34. 
Portuguese navigators, 23, 24, 26, 32-35. 

Potato, first cultivated in Peru, 13. 
Potomac, Army of, 384, 392, 3gg, 412-414, 

Potosi, mines of, 41 
Pottawatomies, g. 
Pottery, Indian, 3-5. 
Poutrincourt, 53. 



Powhatans, 8. 

Preble, Edward, his medal, 282, 283. 

Prescott, William Hickling, 337 ; portrait, 
336. 

President, frigate, 288. 

Presidential succession, legislation con- 
cerning, 460. 

Presque Isle, 168. 

Priesthood, Indian, 12. 

Princeton, battle of, 222. 

Printing press, first in United States, io6. 

Privateers, Confederate, 377. 

Proctor, Gen. Henry, 296, 298. 

Pronunciation of proper names, 551-555. 

Proprietary colonies, 126, 137, 139, 141, 
142. 147. 14S, 151- 

" Prospect of the colledges in Cambridge 
in New England," 96. 

Providence, R I., founding of, gg. 

Provincial Congress in Mass., 200, 204. 

Psalm Book, the Bay, 106. 

Ptolemy, Claudius, 24 ; his idea of the 
world, map, 24. 

Pueblos, 10, II. 

Pulaski, Count, 223. 

Puritans in England, 87, gi ; in New Eng- 
land, 88-97; in Maryland, 127. 

Putram, Israel, 205, 218. 

Pynchon, William, 102. 

Quakers in Boston, 108; in Maryland, 
128; in New Jersey, 138, 139; in Penn- 
sylvania, 138-142; in North Carolina, 
148. 



INDEX. 



531 



Quebec, founding of, 53 ; first expedition 
against, 164; second expedition against, 
i66 ; taken by English, 174; assaulted 
by Americans, 209. 

Queen Anne's War, 165, 166. 

Queenston, Brock Monument, picture of, 
295- 

Queenston Heights, battle of, 295, 296. 

Railroads, 326-328, 330. 

Railway train, picture of one of the first in 
America, 327. 

Raisin River, battle of, 296. 

Raleigh, N. C, city of, 64. 

Raleigh, Sir W., 62-65, 7°) '24 ; portrait, 
62. 

Raleigh Tavern, 197- 

Raymond, battle of, 411. 

Rebellions : Bacon's, 77 ; Dorr's, 332 ; the 
Great, 375-428 ; Shays's, 250. 

Reconstruction, 441, 442. 

Red River, importance of, in Civil War, 
408. 

Reformation in England, 86, 87. 

Regicides in New England, 109. 

Representation in England and America, 
192-194; in slave states, 350. 

Representative governments, in England 
and Virginia, 72. 

Representatives, House of, 254 , electing 
presidents, 278, 316. 

Republican party, the old, 272-274, 278, 
284-286, 310, 316, 319, the new, 360, 362- 
364. 470- 

Resaca, battle of, 425. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 339. 

" Returning Boards," 44S. 

Revere, Paul, 204, 290. 

Revolution, The American : causes, 181- 
184, 1S8-192, 195-203 ; outbreak of hos- 
tilities, 204-206 ; invasion of Canada, 208- 
209; Declaration of Independence, 209, 
210; fighting for control of the Hudson, 
216-230 ; Burgoyne's surrender, 230, 231 ; 
cessation of active hostilities at the 
North, 231, 232 ; conflicts on the frontier, 
at sea, and in the South, 233-235 ; finan- 
cial distress, 235-237; treason of Arnold, 
237, 238 ; victories in the South, 238-240 ; 
surrender of Cornwallis, 241 ; treaty of 
Paris, 246, 247. 

Reynolds, (len. John F., 413. 

Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
99, ic6. 

Rhode Island, probably visited by Verra- 
zano, 51; fit St settlement in, 98, 99; re- 
lations with the other colonies, 107 ; re- 
fuge for Quakers, 107, 108 ; charter, no, 
332. 

Ribault, Jean, 51, 147. 

Richmond in the Civil War, 392,393, 398, 
427 ; Washington Monument and Capi- 
tol Square, 397. 

River Raisin, battle of, 296. 
Roanoke Island, 63. 
Robertson, James, 233, 254. 
Roberval, 51. 



Robinson, John, 88. 

Rochambeau, Count de, 240. 

Rock Creek, 414. 

Rolfe, John, 70, 71. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, his presidency, 479, 

4S0; portrait, 480 ; settles coal strike, 482. 
Rosecrans, W. S., 384, 406, 422. 
" Rotation in office," 320, 421. 
Round Top, 414-416. 
Routes of the four greatest voyages, map, 

36. 
Routes of trade between Europe and Asia, 

22, 23, 35- 
Roxbury, Mass., settlement of, 93. 
Royal governors in the colonies, 116. 

Russell, Earl, 375. 

Russians on California coast, 311. 

Ryswick, treaty of, 165. 

.Sable Island, French colony on, 50. 

Sachem's Head, 104. 

Sachems and war-chiefs, 7. 

.Sacs and Foxes, 9. 

St. Augustine, founding of, 46, 51 ; Spanish 

gateway at, picture, 45 ; besieged by 

Oglethorpe, 151, 152. 
St. Clair, Arthur, defeated by the Indians, 

272. 
Saint Esprit, settlement of, 155. 

.St. Lawrence River, 51. 

St. Leger, Barry, 223, 226, 227. 

St. Mary's, Md., settlement of, 126. 

" Salary Grab,'" 451. 

Salem, Mass., founding of, 91, 93 ; witch- 
craft delusion in, 164, 165. 

Salmon Falls, N. H., ravaged by Indians, 
162. 

.Salt Lake City, founding of, 333. 

Sampson, Admiral W. T., 475, 476. 

San Francisco in 1840, view of, 341. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 337. 

.San Juan, battle of, 476. 

San Miguel on James River, 43. 

Santa Anna, 337, 340; portrait, 337. 

Santiago de Cuba, 475, 476. 

Saratoga, scene of Burgoyne's surrender, 
230. 

Sault Sainte Marie, 155. 

.Savage Indians, picture of, 3. 

.Savannah, Ga., view of, in 1741, 151 ; Amer- 
ican failure to capture, 235 ; captured by 
Sherman, 426. 

Say, Lord, loi. 

Saybrook, 101. 

Schenck, Commodore James F., 396. 

Schenectady, massacre at, 162. 

Schley, Commodore W. S., 475, 476. 

Schofield, Gen. John M., 426. 

Schools and colleges, 495, 496. 

Schuyler, Philip, 224-227; portrait, 224. 

Scotch Highlanders in the Caroliuas, 149} 
in Georgia, 151. . 

Scotch-Irish in America, 141, 149. 

Scott, Dred, 364, 365. 

Scott, Winfieid, 299, 339, 340, 353, 384. 

Scrooby, 88. 



532 



INDEX. 



Search, right of, 273. 

Search warrants, 183. 

Secession, threats of, 251, 286, 310, 324; 
several states secede, 369, 370 ; compari- 
son of the seceding and the loyal states, 
372 ; other states secede, 378, 379. 

Sedition Act, 277. 

Self-government in Virginia, 72-75 ; in New 
England, loi, 102, 106, 107, 115, 116; in 
New York, 134, 136; in Pennsylvania, 
140; local self-government not injured by 
the Federal Union, 267, 26S. 

Seminary Ridge, 414. 

Seminoles, 8,, 310. 

Senate, 254. 

Seneca Indians, 5, 6, 175, 176 

Seneca-Iroquois Long-House, picture and 
ground-plan of, 5. 

Separatists, 86-88, 93. 

Seven days' battles, 399. 

Seven Years' War, 1 71-175. 

Seward, W. H., 354, 429. 

Seymour, Horatio, 444. 

Shadrach, slave, 356. 

Shafter, Gen., 476. 

Shannon, British frigate, captures Chesa- 
peake, 292. 

Shawmut, Indian name of Boston, 93. 

Shawnees, 9. 

Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts, 250. 

Sheep-raising in England, 65. 

Shenandoah Valley in the Civil War, 379, 
383, 393, 394' 398, 423 ; map of, 395. 

Sheridan, Philip H., 423, 425, 427; portrait, 
424. 

" Sherman Act," 463. 

Sherman, W. T., 410, 411, 425, 426; por- 
trait, 424. 

Shields, Gen. James, 394, 397. 

Shiloh, battle of, 390. 

Sickles, Gen. Daniel E., 414, 415. 

Silver, free coinage of, 470, 471. 

"Singeing the King of Spain's beard," 62. 

Sioux War in Minnesota, 406. 

Sioux War, 1876, 450. 

Six Nations, 166. 

Sixth Mass. regiment attacked in Baltimore, 
377, 378- 

Slave trade, beginnings of, 59, 60 ; provi- 
sions of the Constitution concerning, 350; 
abolished in the District of Columbia, 
353 ; reopened with Africa, 365. 

Slavery, first instance of, in territory of the 
United States, 43 ; beginning of, in the 
English colonies, 71, 72 ; slavery in Mary- 
land, 129; in the Carolinas, 148, 150; 
gradual abolition of, in northern states, 
313; unexpected growth of, in southern 
states, 313,314; contests over new states, 
Missouri Compromise, 313-315, 334; an- 
nexation of Texas, 338; Wilmot Proviso. 
340; review of the situation, 349-352; 
slavery question becomes more pressing, 
354"37i ; emancipation, 402-406. 

Slidell, John, 385 

Sloughter, Henry, 136. 

Smith, John, 61, 67-69, 86; portrait, 68. 



Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 333. 
Smith, Gen. Kirby, 383. 

Smugglers, 182. 

Snakes and lightnmg, 7. 

Social life in 1790, 264. 

Soniers, Sir G., 68. 

Songs relating to American history, 542- 

545- 
Soto, F. de, 45. 

South America, discovery and exploration 
_ of, 30, 32-34, 36- 
South Carolina, beginnings of, 149, 150; 

overcome by the British, 235 ; recovered 

by Greene, 240. 
South Georgia, island of, 34. 
South River, early name of the Delaware, 

130. 
Spain aids France in the Seven Years' War, 

174, 175- . 
Spaniards driven from Georgia, 151. 
Spanish-American war, 474-477. 
Spanish colonies, revolt of, 311. 
Spanish galleon, picture, 61. 
Specie payments resumed, 454. 
Speedwell, ship, 88. 
" Spoils System," 320, 321. 
.Spottsylvania, battle of, 423. 
Springfield, Mass., founding of, 102. 
" Squatter sovereignty," 359-361, 364, 368. 
Stamford, Conn., founding of, 105. 
Stamp Act, 188-192, 195. 
Stamp, picture of a tax-, 189. 
Standard time, 550. 
Standish, Miles, 89. 
Stanton, Edwin M., 413, 443. 
Stark, John, 205, 225 ; his silhouette and 

autograph, 225. 
.Stars and Stripes, first hoisted, 227 ; origin 

of, 228. 
-State banks, 324. 
.State debts assumed by Congress, after the 

Revolution, 270. 
State House in Philadelphia, 210; picture, 

210. 
State rights, doctrine of, 322, 323, 325. 
" State Rights Whigs," 325. 
States, classified according to origin, 528 ; 

table of, 529 , names of, 530-538 ; books 

on the history of, 530-538. 
Steamboats, their influence in settlement of 

the West, 312. 
Steam engine, invention of, 266. 
Steamships crossing Atlantic, 328. 
Stepliens, Alexander H., 370; portrait, 

369. 375- 
Stephenson, George, inventor of the loco- 
motive engine, 326-328 ; portrait, 326. 
Steuben, Baron von, portrait, 232. 
Stone implements, 4, 12. 
Stone River, battle of, 406. 
Stony Point, 233. 



.Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 357; portrait, 357. 
Strand, old street in New York, picture, 
133- 



INDEX. 



533 



Stiiyvesant, Peter, governor of New Nether- 
land, 132, 133 ; portrait, 132. 

Submarine caljle, 444. 

Sub-Treasury System, 330. 

Sullivan, John, 218, 221,222; his campaign 
against the Six Nations, 233 ; Newport 
campaign, 232. 

Sullivan's Island in 1776, 210, 211. 

Sumner, Charles, 354, 361 ; viortrait, 361. 

Sumter, Thomas, 235. 

Sun-Worship, 7, 13. 

Supreme Court, 254. 

Susquehannocks, 8. 

Swanzey, burned 1675, in. 

Swedes in Delaware, 132 ; in Pennsylvania, 
140, 141. 

Swift Run Gap, 396. 

Tacoma, view in Pacific Avenue, 466. 

Tallapoosa, battle of, 299 

Talleyrand, Prince, 275. 

Tariff laws between the states, 249. 

Tariffs, 270, 271, 31S-321, 323, 324, 331, 

332, 458, 459, 464, 467, 468, 472. 
Tarleton, Banastre, 239. 
Tarratines, 112. 

Tarrytown, Andr^ captured near, 238. 
Taxation of the colonies, iSg-192, 195, 196, 

igg-203. 
Taylor, Zachary, 339-341 ; his presidency, 

341-353 ; portrait, 352. 
Tea ships, reception of, 200-203. 
Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, 294, 298, 299. 
Telegraph, invention of, 338 ; benefits of, 

481, 491. 

Tennessee, Army of the, 3S8, 416, 422. 

Tennessee, beginnings of, 233, 234 ; growth, 
251 ; in the Civil War, 378', 380, 388, 390. 

Tennessee River, importance of, in Civil 
War, 382, 388, 390. 

Tenure of Office bill, 443. 

Terry, Alfred, 425. 

Texas, achieves independence, 337; an- 
nexation of, 338; admitted to the Union, 
339- 

Thames, battle of the, 298, 299. 

Thayendanegea, 226 ; portrait, 226. 

Theatre in America, 507. 

Theatres, objection to, 264. 

Thirteenth amendment, 442. 

Thomas, Gen. Cieorge H., 388, 422, 423, 
426 i portrait, 424. 

Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford, 

500, 501. 
Thorfinn Karlsefni, 20, 21. 

Ticonderoga, first battle at, 55 ; fortified by 
the French, 172; great battle at, 173; 
taken by the English, 173 ; captured by 
Ethan Allen, 205 ; captured by Burgoyne, 
225. 

Tilden, S. J., 452. 

Time, standard, in United States and Can- 
ada, 550. 

" Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 331. 

Tobacco, cultivation of, 69-71, 149. 

Toledo, battle with Indians near, 272. 



Tonti, Henri de, 157. 
Toombs, Robert, 376. 
Tories in America, persecution of, after the 

Revolution, 248, 272, 273,293. 
Toronto, 293 ; captured by Americans, 296. 
Tory party in America, 113, 116, 195, 233, 

23S> 237.- 
Toscanelli, astronomer, 26; his map, 27. 
Totems, 7. 

Tones, in England, 194. 
Tower of London, Raleigh imprisoned in, 

64. 
Town-meetings, 94. 
Townshend, Charles, 195, 196. 
Townshend Act, 195- igg. 
Townships and parishes, g4. 
Trading-posts on the Hudson, 130. 
Transportation, improved, 489, 490. 
Travelling in 1790, 261, 266. 
Treasure-ships, .Spanish, 62. 
Treaties: Aix-la-Chapelle, 167; Ashburton, 

333 ; with China, 462, 463 ; with France, 

(1778), 231 ; Ghent, 301 ; Jay's, 273 ; Paris 

(1763), 174, 175; Paris (1783), 246, 247; 

Penn's, 140; of reciprocity, 464; Rys- 

wick, 165 ; Utrecht, 166 ; Washington, 

446. 
Tremont, meaning of the name, 93. 
Trent affair, 3S5. 
Trenton, N. J., settlement of, 137, 138; 

battle of, 222. 
Tribes and clans, Indian, 7. 
Trimountain, early name of Boston, 93. 
Tripoli, war with, 283, 284. 

Trumbull, John, ; his portrait of Daniel 
Morgan, 239; of John Adams, 276; his 
picture of Cornwallis's surrender, 241. 

Truxtun, Thomas, 276, 278 ; his medal, 275. 

Turks, effect of their conquests upon navi- 
gation, 23. 

Tuscaroras, 8, 149, 166. 

Tyler, John, 325, 326, 331 ; his presidency, 
331-33S; 370. 



Uncle Tom's Cabin, 357- 

" Unconditional surrender," 389. 

" Underground railroad," 357. 

Underbill, John, 103, 104. 

Union, Federal, early need of, 184. 

Union Jack, picture, 228. 

Union Pacific railroad, 444, 450I 

" Unite or Die," 1S8. 

United Colonies of New England, 107. 

United States, frigate, capti.res Macedo- 
nian, 290. 

United States, people of, i, 261. 

University of Pennsylvania, founded by 
Franklin, 187. 

University of Virginia, founded by Jeffer- 
son, 280. 

Uruguay, foundation of, 41. 

Utah, organized, 352, 353. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 166. 

Uxmal, ruined temple at, picture, 11. 

Vaca, Cabeza de, 43. 
Valcour Island, battle of, 217. 



34 



INDEX. 



Valladolid, 31. 

Valley Forge, 231, 232. 

Valparaiso, 292. 

Van Buren, Martin, bis presidency, 326- 

331; portrait, 330; Free-Soil candidate 

for presidency, 342. 
Vancouver, Geor^re, 2S3. 
Van Rensselaer, Gen. Stephen, 295. 

Venango, 168. 

Venezuela, 32 ; its pearl fisheries, 41 ; treaty 
with Great Britain, 472, 473. 

Vengeance, La, frigate, the capture of, 277 

Venice, 23. 

Vera Cruz, battles near, 339, 340. 

Veragua, 31. 

Verrazano, 51. 

Vespucius, Americus, accompanies Pinzon 
to the New World, 30, 31 ; second and 
third voyages, 32-34 ; later voyages, 
death, 35. 

Vicksburg, Sherman's attack on, 407 ; pic- 
ture of gunboats passing, 410 ; capture of, 
by Grant, 407-412, 416. 

View of Boston in 1790, 262. 

Vigilance committees in California, 341. 

Vincennes, Ind., 167, 234. 

Vinland, 20, 21. 

Virginia Company. See London Company 

Virginia, settlement of, 65-78 ; in the Re- 
volution, 197, 240, 241 ; resolutions, 277 ; 
in the Civil War, 378, 379 ; map of, 400. 

Wade, Benjamin, 443. 

Waldseemliller, Martin, 34. 

Walker tariff, 459. 

Walker, Williarn, filibuster, 358. 

Wall Street, N. Y., with its palisades, 131 ; 

picture, 131. 
Wampanoags, 90, in 
" War Democrats," 374. 
War, diminution of, 309. 
War of 1812-1S15, 288-301 

Warming houses, 493. 
Warner, Seth, 205. 

Warren, General Joseph, 206. 

Warwick, R. L, founding of, 99. 

Washington admitted a state, 463. 

Washington, George, sent to Venango, 168, 
169; defeated at Fort Necessity, i6g ; 
saves the remnant of Braddock's army, 
170; aids in capturing Fort Duquesne, 
173; appointed to command the Conti- 
nental army, 206; picture of his head- 
quarters in Cambridge, 207 , captures 
Boston, 2og ; his retreat from Brooklyn, 
219; his retreat through New 'Jersey, 
221 ; his victories at Trenton and Prince- 
ton, 222; his campaign in Pennsylvania, 
229 ; resigns liis commission, 247 ; pro- 
posal to make him king, 247 ; president 
of the Federal Convention, 253-256 ; 
president of the LInited States, 256, 266- 

274 ; again made commander of the army, 

275 ; his death, 27S. 
Washington, William, 239. 



Washington, city of, dispute about its site, 
270 ; picture of Capitol, 279 ; captured by 
the British, 300. 

Washington elm, picture of, 208. 

Washington, treaty of, 445, 446. 

Wasp, sloop, captures tlie Frolic, 290. 

Watertown, Mass., settlement of, 93 ; dis- 
satisfaction with the government and 
emigration of many to Connecticut, loi, 
102. 

Wayne, Anthony, 233, 272; portrait, 233. 

Weaver, James, 467. 

Webster, Daniel, replies to Hayne, 322; 

negotiates Ashburton treaty, 333 ; death, 

354; portrait, 323. 

Welsh in America, 140, 141. 

West Jersey, 138. 

West Point, 237. 

West, rapid growth of the, 313. 

West Virginia, formation of, 379, 384 

Wethersfield, Conn., founding of, 102. 

Weyler, Gen., in Cuba, 473, 474. 

Whalley, Edward, 109. 

Wheat cropj 472. 

Wheeled vehicles in New England, 266. 
Whig party in the U. S., 325, 331, 332,338, 

34.1-353. 360, 362, 368. 
Whigs in English politics. Old and New, 

I93-IQS- 
Whiskey Insurrection, 271. 
Whiskey Ring, 451. 
White, Hugh, 326. 
White Plains, battle of, 219. 
Whitney, Eli, 314. 

Whittier, J. G., 337, 445 ; portrait, 336, 

Wilderness, battle of, 423. 
Wilkes, Capt., 385. 

William ill., king of Great Britain, 115, 

'3,Si '36, 160, 165. 
William of Orange. See William III., 

king of Great Britain. 
Williamsburg, Va., picture of Capitol, 200. 
Williams, Roger, 98, 99, 103, 107; his 

meeting-house in Salem, 98. 
Wilmot, David, 340. 
Wilmot Proviso, 340, 353, 360, 362. 

Wilson's Creek, battle of, 380. 

Wilsen tariff, 468. 

Winchester, 383, 396, 423. 

Windmill at Newport, 21. 

Windsor, Conn., founding of, loo, 102. 

Winthrop, Fitz-John, 164. 

Winthrop, John, 61, 93, loi ; portrait, 92. 

Winthrop, John, the younger, 100, 

Wirt, William, 323, 324. 

Wisconsin, explored by the French, 155; 

admitted to the Union, 339. 
Witchcraft delusion in .Salem, 164, 165. 
Wolfe, Jaines, takes Quebec, 173, 174; 

portrait, 173. 



INDEX. 



535 



Wolpi, pueblo of, picture, 44. 

Woolen weaving in the Netherlands, 

65. 
Woolsey T. D., 502. 
World's Fair of 1S76 at Philadelphia, 449 . 

Writs of assistance, 1S2, 1S3. 
Wyoming, admitted as a state, 463. 
Wyoming, Pa., massacre at, 233 ; disputes 
about the possession of, 249. 

X. Y. Z. Dispatches, 275. 

Yemassees, 150. 

York, Canada. See Toronto. 



York, Duke of, brother of Charles II., 134, 

m, MI- 

^'ork, Me., massacre at, 162. 

York river, 393. 

Yorktown, Va., captured by Washington, 

240, 241 ; besieged by McClellan, 394. 
Young, Brigham, 333. 

Young's Point, 409. 

Yucatan, ruined cities of, 11; explored by 
Spaniards, 40. 

Zollicoffer, Gen., 381. 

Zones of English colonization, 66, 124. 

Zunis, 10, 44. 



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